按方法、领域与证据探索科学。

Digital Transformation Readiness Scale

Digital Transformation Readiness refers to an organization's preparedness to successfully adopt digital technologies, redesign business processes, and develop new digital capabilities to compete in increasingly digital markets. Westerman, Bonnet, and McAfee (2014) identify nine elements of digital transformation spanni

health economics

Disability-Adjusted Life Year

A DALY quantifies disease burden as the sum of years of life lost to premature death and years lived with disability. Developed by the World Health Organization and World Bank in 1990 as part of the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study, DALYs enable epidemiologists and public health planners to compare disease burden a

finance

DuPont Analysis

DuPont Analysis is a financial performance framework that decomposes Return on Equity (ROE) into three multiplicative components: net profit margin, asset turnover, and the equity multiplier. Originally developed by engineers at DuPont Corporation in the early 1920s, the method gained renewed academic prominence throug

strategic management

Dynamic Capabilities Scale

Dynamic Capabilities (DC) represent an organization's capacity to sense new opportunities and threats, seize those opportunities through strategic investments and organizational changes, and reconfigure assets and organizational structures to adapt to shifting competitive environments. Teece (2007) articulated this fra

tourism management

E-Government Adoption Scale

The E-Government Adoption Scale (EGAS) measures citizens' willingness to adopt and use digital government services (e-permits, e-tax, e-voting, e-tourism information services, online licensing) based on Technology Acceptance Model principles (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) extended to government contexts (Belanger et al., 20

organizational behavior

Emotional Exhaustion Scale

The Emotional Exhaustion subscale is one of three core dimensions of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), developed by Maslach and Jackson in 1981. Emotional exhaustion represents the first stage of burnout, characterized by feeling emotionally drained, fatigued, and depleted as a result of work. The nine-item subscale

organizational behavior

Employee Engagement Survey

The Employee Engagement Survey, grounded in Schaufeli and Bakker's Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), is a 17-item instrument measuring occupational engagement across three dimensions: vigor, dedication, and absorption. Originally developed in 2002, the EES assesses the positive psychological state of work engagemen

organizational behavior

Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire

The Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ) is a 6-item self-report instrument designed to measure an individual's intention to start a new business. Developed by Liñán and Chen in 2009, it is grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior and has become widely used across entrepreneurship research and education. The

strategic management

Entrepreneurial Orientation Scale

The Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) Scale, developed by Danny Miller (1983), measures the extent to which an organization exhibits strategic postures characteristic of entrepreneurship. It assesses three core dimensions—innovativeness, risk-taking, and proactiveness—that distinguish entrepreneurial from conservative f

organizational behavior

Ethical Leadership Scale

The Ethical Leadership Scale (ELS) is a 10-item instrument measuring the degree to which leaders model ethical behavior and hold followers accountable to ethical standards. Developed by Brown, Treviño, and Harrison in 2005, the ELS operationalizes ethical leadership, assessing leader conduct and norm-setting that shape

finance

Event Study

The event study is a financial research method that measures the impact of a news release, policy change, or corporate event on asset prices through cumulative abnormal returns. Reviewed by MacKinlay (1997) and formalised econometrically by Kothari and Warner (2007), it is the standard tool for testing the efficient-ma

finance

Extreme Value Theory

Extreme Value Theory is a statistical framework for modelling the rare events that live in the tail of a probability distribution. As developed in Coles (2001) and applied to risk by McNeil, Frey & Embrechts (2005), it offers two standard routes: the Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distribution for block maxima and the

operations management

Facility Layout (SLP)

Systematic Layout Planning (SLP) is a structured methodology developed by Richard Muther in the 1960s–1970s for designing optimal plant and facility layouts. The approach systematizes the consideration of material flow, personnel movement, equipment relationships, and space constraints to minimize material handling cos

finance

Factor Risk Model

A factor risk model is a multi-factor framework that links asset returns to systematic risk factors such as the market, value, size, and momentum. The Fama-French three- and five-factor models (1993) and Ross's Arbitrage Pricing Theory (1976) decompose portfolio risk and detect alpha.

accounting

Fraud Risk Assessment

Fraud Risk Assessment is a structured audit methodology required by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) for identifying and evaluating risks that financial statements could be materially misstated due to fraud. Unlike audit risk assessment focused on error, fraud assessment considers intentio

accounting

Going Concern Evaluation

Going Concern Evaluation is an auditor framework for assessing whether the entity being audited will be able to continue operating and meeting its obligations in the foreseeable future (typically, one year from the financial statement date). Required by auditing standards, this assessment examines financial and operati

quantitative finance

Greeks via Automatic Differentiation

Automatic differentiation (AD) is a computational technique for computing derivatives (Greeks) by differentiating the computer code that computes the option price. AD avoids manual derivation of formulas and finite-difference approximations, yielding exact sensitivities with machine precision. It has become essential f

finance

HAR-RV Model

The HAR-RV model, introduced by Fulvio Corsi in 2009, forecasts realized volatility by decomposing it into daily, weekly, and monthly components. It is a simple linear regression that mirrors how market participants with different investment horizons react to volatility, and it naturally captures the long-memory behavi

healthcare management

HCAHPS Hospital Consumer Assessment Survey

The Hospital Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems (HCAHPS) is a 27-item, CMS-mandated patient experience survey administered to a random sample of hospital inpatients after discharge. Launched in 2006 by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality,

healthcare management

Health Technology Assessment

Health Technology Assessment (HTA) is a structured, multidisciplinary approach to evaluating the clinical, economic, and societal effects of healthcare technologies (devices, drugs, procedures, systems). HTA synthesizes evidence from clinical trials, observational studies, and economic analyses to support decision-make

healthcare management

Healthcare Team Vitality Instrument

The Healthcare Team Vitality Instrument (HTVI) is a brief, 5-item survey designed to measure healthcare team cohesion, communication quality, and shared purpose—dimensions of team "vitality" that are associated with effective teamwork and patient safety. Developed by Metersky and colleagues and validated in intensive c

economics

Hedonic Pricing

The hedonic pricing model, developed by Sherwin Rosen in 1974 and building on Kevin Lancaster's characteristics theory (1966), is an econometric method for valuing the implicit prices of product attributes by regressing market prices on observed characteristics. It reveals the trade-offs consumers are willing to make a

marketing management

HEdPERF Higher Education Performance Scale

HEdPERF is a 41-item scale designed specifically to measure service quality in higher education contexts, developed by Srikanthan and Dalrymple (2003). Extending SERVQUAL's framework to academic environments, HEdPERF captures unique dimensions of educational service: Academic Aspects (teaching quality, curriculum relev

quantitative finance

HJM Framework

The Heath-Jarrow-Morton (HJM) framework (1992) is a general no-arbitrage approach to modeling the entire term structure of forward rates. Unlike short-rate models, HJM works directly with forward rates f(t,T) and specifies their volatility; the drift is then determined by arbitrage constraints. This flexibility enables

healthcare management

Hospital Bed Occupancy Model

Hospital bed occupancy models forecast the number of occupied beds at future times by analyzing admission patterns, length of stay distributions, and discharge dynamics. These models support tactical decisions about staffing, supply chain management, and strategic decisions about capacity expansion.

healthcare management

Hospital Readmission Prediction Model

Hospital readmission prediction models use statistical and machine learning techniques to identify patients at high risk of returning to the hospital shortly after discharge. These models guide targeted discharge planning and follow-up to improve outcomes and reduce costs.

healthcare management

Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture

The Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture (HSOPS) is a 42-item standardized instrument developed by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) to measure patient safety culture in hospital settings. First released in 2004 and revised in 2018, the HSOPS assesses 12 composite dimensions of safety culture a

tourism management

Hotel Service Quality Scale

The Hotel Service Quality Scale (HSQS), including the Lodging Quality Index (LQI) developed by Getty & Getty (2003), measures guest perceptions of hotel service quality across multiple dimensions (room comfort, staff responsiveness, facilities, value). Using expectancy-disconfirmation theory, it captures not only perce

quantitative finance

Hull-White Model

The Hull-White model (1990) is a one-factor short-rate model with time-dependent mean reversion and volatility, designed to fit the initial yield curve exactly. It generalizes the Vasicek model to allow better calibration to observed bond and derivative prices, and is widely used for pricing interest rate exotics and m

strategic management

Innovation Ambidexterity Scale

Innovation Ambidexterity—the organizational capacity to simultaneously engage in exploration (pursuing radical, novel innovations) and exploitation (improving and extending existing products and processes)—is fundamental to sustained competitive advantage. March (1991) formalized this trade-off in Organization Science,

organizational behavior

Innovation Climate Scale

The Innovation Climate Scale (ICS) is a 50-item instrument measuring organizational climate for creativity and innovation across ten dimensions. Developed by Göran Ekvall in 1996, the ICS identifies environmental factors that enable or inhibit organizational innovation, making it valuable for assessing innovation poten

health economics

Instrumental Variables in Health Research

Instrumental variables (IV) is an econometric method to estimate causal effects when treatment or exposure is not randomly assigned and confounding is severe or unmeasured. IV relies on a third variable (instrument) that influences treatment but does not directly affect the outcome, allowing researchers to isolate the

finance

Interest Rate Models

Interest rate models are structural models that describe how interest rates evolve over time within a stochastic differential equation framework. The family covers Vasicek's normal short-rate process (1977), the CIR square-root process, the adjustable Hull-White extension, and the Nelson-Siegel approach to fitting the

accounting

Internal Control Evaluation

Internal Control Evaluation is a systematic methodology for assessing the design and effectiveness of an entity's internal control system using the COSO Integrated Framework. Developed by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission, this approach evaluates five interrelated components—control e

operations management

Inventory Routing

The Inventory Routing Problem (IRP) is an optimization problem that jointly determines inventory levels at customer locations, delivery routes, and shipment quantities to minimize total logistics and inventory holding costs. Rather than treating inventory management and vehicle routing as separate decisions, IRP recogn

organizational behavior

Job Content Questionnaire

The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ), developed by Robert Karasek in 1985, operationalizes the Job Strain Model, a foundational theory linking job characteristics to health outcomes. The JCQ measures job demands, decision latitude (autonomy and skill utilization), social support, and physical exertion. It identifies hig

organizational behavior

Job Demands-Resources Scale

The Job Demands-Resources Scale (JDRS) is a multidimensional assessment instrument based on the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model, developed by Demerouti and Bakker in 2001. It measures the balance between job demands (workload, time pressure, emotional demands) and resources (autonomy, support, opportunities for grow

organizational behavior

Job Descriptive Index

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is a comprehensive self-report measure of job satisfaction across five distinct dimensions: work, supervision, coworkers, pay, and promotions. Developed by Smith, Kendall, and Hulin in 1969, it has become one of the most widely used and empirically validated job satisfaction instruments

organizational behavior

Job Satisfaction Survey

The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) is a 36-item, multidimensional self-report questionnaire developed by Paul Spector in 1985. It assesses nine facets of job satisfaction including pay, promotion, supervision, work itself, fringe benefits, coworkers, communication, working conditions, and management. The JSS has become

operations management

Job Shop Scheduling

Job shop scheduling is the problem of assigning a set of jobs (tasks) to a set of machines (resources) over time, subject to precedence and capacity constraints, with the goal of optimizing performance metrics such as makespan (total completion time), lateness, or cost. The job shop problem is a classic combinatorial o

finance

Johansen Cointegration Test

The Johansen procedure is a multivariate cointegration framework, introduced by Søren Johansen in 1991, that tests for long-run equilibrium relationships among several I(1) time series. It determines how many cointegrating vectors link the series and then builds a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) to describe the sh

accounting

Jones Accrual Model

The Jones Accrual Model, developed by Jennifer J. Jones in 1991, is a statistical method for detecting earnings management in financial statements by isolating abnormal accruals. It distinguishes between normal business accruals and potentially manipulated accruals, helping auditors and analysts identify potential fina

finance

Jump-Diffusion Model

The Merton Jump-Diffusion model, introduced by Robert C. Merton in 1976, extends Geometric Brownian Motion by adding sudden price jumps generated by a Poisson process. It captures the volatility smile and the fat-tailed return behaviour that standard Black-Scholes cannot explain, and is widely used in option pricing an

finance

Kalman Filter (Finance)

The Kalman filter is a recursive algorithm that estimates financial models with time-varying parameters, hidden factors, and noisy observations inside a dynamic state-space framework. The structural time series treatment was set out by Harvey (1989), with state-space and regime-switching extensions developed by Kim and

operations management

Kanban

Kanban is a pull-based production control system developed by Taiichi Ohno at Toyota in the 1950s that uses visual signals (traditionally cards or bins) to trigger production and movement of materials based on actual demand rather than forecasts. The Japanese word 'kanban' means 'visual card' or 'sign,' and the system

quantitative finance

Kelly Criterion

The Kelly Criterion (1956) is a formula for optimal bet sizing that maximizes the long-run logarithmic growth of wealth. It specifies the optimal fraction of capital to risk on each trade based on win probability and payoff ratio. The criterion has become foundational in quantitative trading, portfolio management, and

strategic management

Knowledge Management Capability Scale

Knowledge Management (KM) refers to the organizational capacity to create, capture, organize, and apply knowledge to improve organizational effectiveness, innovation, and decision-making. Nonaka and Takeuchi's (1995) knowledge-creating company framework conceptualized knowledge as moving through four conversion modes:

organizational behavior

Knowledge Sharing Scale

The Knowledge Sharing Scale (KSS) is an 18-item instrument measuring employee intention to share knowledge and experience within organizations. Developed by Bock, Zmud, Kim, and Lee in 2005, the KSS assesses barriers and enablers of knowledge sharing behavior across six dimensions: perceived usefulness, extrinsic motiv

organizational behavior

Leader-Member Exchange Scale

The Leader-Member Exchange Scale (LMX-7) measures the quality of the working relationship between a supervisor and employee. Developed by Graen and Uhl-Bien in 1995, it is a brief, widely adopted instrument grounded in Leader-Member Exchange theory. The scale captures mutual trust, respect, and obligation—the psycholog

healthcare management

Lean Healthcare

Lean is a management philosophy that emerged from the Toyota Production System, focused on maximizing patient value while minimizing waste. Applied to healthcare, Lean uses systematic methods to identify and eliminate non-value-added activities, reduce wait times, and improve the quality of patient care.

quantitative finance

Libor Market Model

The LIBOR Market Model (BGM), developed by Brace, Gatarek, and Musiela (1997), is a multi-factor interest rate model that directly models forward LIBOR rates as lognormal processes. Unlike short-rate models, LMM naturally prices caplets at the market level and is the industry standard for valuing caps, floors, and exot

finance

Liquidity Risk Models

Liquidity Risk Models are a family of measures that quantify how easily an asset trades by capturing its price impact, its effective bid-ask spread, and a holding-period adjustment. The family brings together the Amihud illiquidity ratio (Amihud, 2002), the Roll serial-covariance spread estimator (Roll, 1984), and the

quantitative finance

Local Volatility (Dupire)

Dupire's local volatility model (1994) is a deterministic framework that extracts a term and strike-dependent volatility function from market option prices. Unlike constant volatility, local volatility perfectly fits the observed implied volatility smile and is implemented via finite difference methods for European and

finance

Long-Memory Models

Long-memory models are fractional-integration methods that capture genuine long memory through a hyperbolically decaying autocorrelation structure. ARFIMA, introduced by Granger and Joyeux (1980), models long memory in return series, while FIGARCH, introduced by Baillie, Bollerslev and Mikkelsen (1996), captures long m

quantitative finance

Longstaff-Schwartz Method

The Longstaff-Schwartz method (2001) is a Monte Carlo algorithm for pricing American options and Bermudan swaptions by approximating the optimal exercise boundary via least-squares regression. It has become the industry standard for pricing path-dependent derivatives where analytical solutions do not exist.

finance

Market Microstructure Analysis

Market microstructure analysis studies how prices form from tick-level trade and quote data, examining order-book dynamics, the bid-ask spread, and price discovery. The modern econometric framework was set out by Hasbrouck (2007) and extended for high-frequency data by Aït-Sahalia and Jacod (2014).

marketing

Market Segmentation Analysis

Market Segmentation Analysis is a systematic approach to dividing a heterogeneous market into smaller, homogeneous groups (segments) that share similar needs, behaviors, preferences, or characteristics. Developed through advances in statistical clustering and customer analytics, this methodology enables companies to ta

strategic management

Market Sensing Capability Scale

Market Sensing Capability (MSC) refers to an organization's ability to systematically gather, interpret, and respond to market information about customers, competitors, and market trends. Building on Kohli and Jaworski's (1990) market orientation construct and George Day's (1994) framework of market-driven organization

marketing

Marketing Mix Modeling

Marketing Mix Modeling (MMM) is an econometric methodology for estimating the impact of various marketing activities (advertising, pricing, promotions, distribution) on sales or other business outcomes. Developed through work by Hanssens, Parsons, and Schultz, MMM integrates time-series data on marketing spend, sales,

marketing management

MARKOR Market Orientation Scale

The MARKOR scale, developed by Kohli, Jaworski, and Kumar (1993), measures organizational market orientation—the degree to which an organization actively gathers and uses market intelligence to guide strategy and decision-making. MARKOR captures three core dimensions: Intelligence Generation (collecting customer and co