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MethodeStatistiek1,836AI & ML1,661Besliskunde932Onderzoeksmethoden1,354Meten1,745Causaliteit & evidentie532Onderzoekspraktijk118
126 methoden in Environment & Sustainability · StatistiekWissen
Methoden op het snijpunt van je twee filters.
SorterenPopulariteitA–ZZ–ANieuwste
spatial analysis

Local Spatial Lag Model

The Local Spatial Lag Model extends the classical spatial lag model by allowing both the spatial autocorrelation parameter and the regression coefficients to vary across geographic locations. Instead of one global estimate of how neighboring outcomes influence each observation, the model fits location-specific paramete

2 bronnen1988
spatial analysis

Local Spatial Regression

Local Spatial Regression fits a separate regression model at each location in a study area, allowing regression coefficients to vary continuously across space. Rather than forcing one global slope on all observations, it reveals where and how the relationship between predictors and an outcome changes geographically — p

2 bronnen1996
spatial analysis

Local Universal Kriging

Local Universal Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation method that combines a spatially varying deterministic trend with a stochastic residual, estimated using only nearby observations within a defined search neighborhood. It generalizes local ordinary kriging by explicitly modeling and removing a polynomial or cova

2 bronnen1969
spatial analysis

Location-Allocation

Location-allocation models decide where to place a set of facilities and simultaneously assign demand points to them so as to optimize an objective such as total travel cost, worst-case distance, or population covered. Rooted in the operations-research work of Cooper (1963) and Hakimi (1964) and central to network GIS,

2 bronnen1963
spatial analysis

Map Algebra

Map Algebra is a rule-based language and computational framework for deriving new raster layers from existing ones by applying arithmetic, logical, or statistical operations cell by cell or across neighborhoods. Formalized by Dana Tomlin in 1990, it is the foundational algebraic system underlying raster GIS analysis an

1 bron1990
spatial analysis

MGWR

Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression, introduced by Fotheringham, Yang and Kang in 2017, is a spatial regression model that lets each coefficient vary across space at its own spatial scale. It generalises Geographically Weighted Regression by giving every predictor its own bandwidth, so some relationships can

2 bronnen2017
spatial analysis

Moran's I

Moran's I is the standard global statistic for detecting spatial autocorrelation: whether nearby locations tend to share similar values. The index ranges from approximately −1 (perfect dispersion) through 0 (spatial randomness) to +1 (perfect clustering), allowing researchers to test whether a geographic pattern differ

2 bronnen1950
spatial analysis

Moran's I

Moran's I is a global statistic, introduced by Patrick Moran in 1950, that measures whether and how a continuous variable is spatially autocorrelated across mapped units. A positive value signals clustering of similar values, a negative value signals a dispersed (checkerboard) pattern, and it is most often used as a di

2 bronnen1950
spatial analysis

Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression

Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression (MGWR) is a local spatial regression framework that relaxes the single-bandwidth constraint of standard GWR by allowing each predictor to operate at its own spatial scale. Each coefficient surface is calibrated with its own bandwidth, enabling the model to distinguish drive

2 bronnen2017
spatial analysis

Multiscale Getis-Ord Gi*

Multiscale Getis-Ord Gi* extends the classic local hot spot statistic by computing Gi* z-scores across a range of spatial distance bands or neighborhood sizes. This reveals whether clusters of high or low values are scale-dependent — appearing only at fine local scales, only at broad regional scales, or persistently ac

2 bronnen1995
spatial analysis

Multiscale Moran's I

Multiscale Moran's I extends the classic global Moran's I statistic by computing spatial autocorrelation across a series of distance lags or spatial scales. The resulting spatial correlogram reveals at which geographic scales clusters or dispersions of a variable exist, offering richer insight than a single summary sta

2 bronnen1950
spatial analysis

Multiscale Spatial Autocorrelation

Multiscale spatial autocorrelation extends classical spatial autocorrelation analysis by computing and comparing autocorrelation statistics (such as Moran's I) across a range of spatial scales simultaneously. This reveals at which geographic distances or resolutions spatial clustering or dispersion is strongest, provid

2 bronnen2002
spatial analysis

Network-Based Spatial Analysis

Network-based spatial analysis (NBSA) analyzes the distribution and interaction of spatial phenomena constrained to a network structure — such as roads, railways, or rivers — using network distance rather than straight-line (Euclidean) distance. It is the appropriate framework whenever movement, proximity, or risk is g

2 bronnen1990
spatial analysis

Ordinary Kriging

Ordinary Kriging (OK) is the standard geostatistical method for interpolating a continuous spatial variable at unsampled locations. It derives optimal, unbiased weights from the spatial covariance structure of the data, making it the Best Linear Unbiased Predictor (BLUP) under stationarity assumptions. Unlike simpler d

2 bronnen1963
spatial analysis

Panel Geary's C

Panel Geary's C extends the classic Geary contiguity ratio to panel datasets, measuring spatial autocorrelation across georeferenced units (regions, cities, countries) observed over multiple time periods. It detects whether neighboring units tend to have similar values, pooling or averaging evidence across the temporal

2 bronnen1954
spatial analysis

Panel Geographically Weighted Regression

Panel Geographically Weighted Regression (Panel GWR) extends the standard GWR framework to panel data, allowing regression coefficients to vary both across geographic locations and over time. It captures spatially non-stationary relationships in longitudinal or repeated-measures spatial datasets, combining local spatia

2 bronnen2000
spatial analysis

Panel Hot Spot Analysis

Panel Hot Spot Analysis applies hot spot detection — typically via the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic — repeatedly across multiple time periods on the same spatial units, enabling researchers to track where clusters of high or low values persist, emerge, or dissolve over time. It bridges cross-sectional spatial statistics wit

2 bronnen1992
spatial analysis

Panel Kernel Density Estimation

Panel Kernel Density Estimation (Panel KDE) extends the standard kernel density estimator to panel (longitudinal) data, estimating smooth density surfaces for spatial or attribute variables observed across multiple units and time periods. It reveals how the distribution of a phenomenon shifts, concentrates, or disperse

2 bronnen1962
spatial analysis

Panel Kriging

Panel Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation method that combines kriging's spatial prediction framework with a panel (longitudinal) data structure. It estimates unknown values at unobserved locations and times by borrowing strength from repeated spatial observations across multiple time periods, accounting for both

2 bronnen2011
spatial analysis

Panel Local Indicators of Spatial Association

Panel Local Indicators of Spatial Association extends Anselin's LISA statistics — most commonly Local Moran's I — to panel datasets, identifying spatial clusters and outliers at each location across multiple time periods. By applying local autocorrelation measures repeatedly over time, researchers can detect whether sp

2 bronnen1995
spatial analysis

Panel Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression

Panel MGWR extends Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression to repeated-observations (panel) data, allowing each predictor to operate at its own spatial bandwidth while controlling for unit-specific or time-specific fixed effects. It is used when both spatial heterogeneity and temporal structure matter simultaneou

2 bronnen2017
spatial analysis

Panel Network-Based Spatial Analysis

Panel Network-Based Spatial Analysis extends standard spatial econometric models to repeated-measures (panel) data by representing spatial dependence through network connectivity rather than simple geographic proximity. It captures how units connected in a network influence each other's outcomes over time, while contro

2 bronnen2000
spatial analysis

Panel Ordinary Kriging

Panel Ordinary Kriging extends the classical geostatistical interpolation method — Ordinary Kriging — to panel (longitudinal) datasets where the same set of spatial locations is observed repeatedly over multiple time periods. It produces optimal linear unbiased predictions at unsampled locations for each time slice, ac

2 bronnen1963
spatial analysis

Panel Spatial Autocorrelation

Panel Spatial Autocorrelation measures whether observations that are geographically close also tend to have similar values across repeated time periods. It extends classic cross-sectional spatial autocorrelation statistics such as Moran's I to panel data, enabling researchers to detect spatial dependence consistently o

2 bronnen1988
spatial analysis

Panel Spatial Durbin Model

The Panel Spatial Durbin Model (PSDM) extends the cross-sectional Spatial Durbin Model to panel data, capturing both spatial lag dependence in the outcome and spatial spillovers from neighbouring units' explanatory variables across multiple time periods. It simultaneously accounts for unobserved unit-specific and time-

2 bronnen2009
spatial analysis

Panel Spatial Error Model

The Panel Spatial Error Model (panel SEM) extends the classical spatial error model to panel data, allowing spatial dependence to enter through the error term across cross-sectional units over multiple time periods. It accounts for spatially correlated omitted variables without imposing a substantive spatial spillover

2 bronnen1988
spatial analysis

Panel Spatial Regression

Panel Spatial Regression extends standard panel data models by explicitly accounting for spatial dependence among cross-sectional units observed over time. It combines the temporal control of panel fixed or random effects with a spatial weights matrix that encodes geographic or network proximity, yielding unbiased and

2 bronnen1988
spatial analysis

Panel Universal Kriging

Panel Universal Kriging extends Universal Kriging to data structures with repeated spatial observations over time (panel or longitudinal format). It simultaneously estimates a deterministic trend surface — incorporating covariates that vary across both space and time — and a stochastic spatially correlated residual, po

2 bronnen1963
spatial analysis

Radiation Model

The Radiation Model, introduced by Simini et al. in 2012, is a parameter-free model for predicting human mobility and migration flows between geographic locations. Drawing an analogy from radiation physics, it predicts trip volumes based solely on population sizes at origin and destination, and the intervening populati

1 bron2012
spatial analysis

Remote Sensing Classification

Remote sensing classification assigns discrete thematic labels — such as forest, urban, water, or cropland — to pixels in a satellite or aerial image based on their spectral, spatial, and temporal properties. It underpins land-use/land-cover mapping, change detection, environmental monitoring, and disaster response at

2 bronnen1970
spatial analysis

Ripley K Function

The Ripley K function, introduced by Brian Ripley in 1977, is a second-order summary statistic for spatial point patterns. It measures how the number of points within a given distance d of a typical point compares to what would be expected under complete spatial randomness (CSR). Widely used in ecology, epidemiology, c

1 bron1977
spatial analysis

Robust Co-Kriging

Robust Co-Kriging is a multivariate geostatistical interpolation method that jointly estimates values at unsampled locations using two or more spatially correlated variables, while applying robust estimators for the variogram and cross-variogram to limit the distorting influence of spatial outliers or non-Gaussian meas

2 bronnen1993
spatial analysis

Robust Geary's C

Robust Geary's C adapts the classical Geary contiguity ratio — a measure of spatial autocorrelation based on pairwise squared differences between neighbouring locations — to resist distortion by spatial outliers and influential observations. It retains the local sensitivity of Geary's C while producing more reliable in

2 bronnen1954
spatial analysis

Robust Getis-Ord Gi*

The Robust Getis-Ord Gi* statistic extends the classical Gi* hot-spot measure to handle outliers in spatial data. By using robust estimators of the mean and variance — such as trimmed means, medians, or down-weighted influential observations — it identifies statistically significant spatial clusters of high or low valu

2 bronnen1992
spatial analysis

Robust Kriging

Robust Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation method that extends classical kriging by replacing sensitive variogram estimation with outlier-resistant alternatives, most notably the Cressie-Hawkins robust estimator. It produces spatially interpolated predictions that are not distorted by anomalous or extreme observa

2 bronnen1980
spatial analysis

Robust Local Indicators of Spatial Association

Robust Local Indicators of Spatial Association extend Anselin's LISA framework to handle outliers, extreme values, and spatially heterogeneous populations. By applying outlier-resistant adjustments to the spatial weights or the standardised values, Robust LISA identifies statistically significant local clusters and spa

2 bronnen1995
spatial analysis

Robust Moran's I

Robust Moran's I is an outlier-resistant adaptation of the classic Moran's I spatial autocorrelation statistic. By replacing the standard mean-based standardization with resistant measures of center and spread, it detects genuine geographic clustering without being distorted by a small number of extreme values in the a

2 bronnen1990
spatial analysis

Robust Spatial Autocorrelation

Robust spatial autocorrelation methods measure the degree to which nearby geographic units share similar values, while explicitly controlling for the distorting influence of spatial outliers and extreme observations. They extend classical statistics such as Moran's I by down-weighting or trimming observations that woul

2 bronnen1981
spatial analysis

Robust Universal Kriging

Robust Universal Kriging (RUK) is a geostatistical interpolation method that combines a spatially varying deterministic trend with a stochastic residual surface, while using robust estimators to protect the variogram and trend coefficients from the distorting influence of outlying observations.

2 bronnen1980
spatial analysis

Service Area Analysis

Service Area Analysis delineates the geographic region reachable from one or more origin facilities within a specified travel cost — typically time, distance, or generalized impedance — by traversing a real road or transit network. It is widely used by urban planners, public health officials, logistics managers, and em

1 bron2001
ecology

SIAR Mixing Model

The Stable Isotope Analysis in R (SIAR) mixing model is a Bayesian framework for estimating the proportional contributions of dietary sources to a consumer, using stable isotope ratios. Developed by Parnell and colleagues (2010) and implemented in the R package siar (and its successor MixSIAR), this method integrates i

3 bronnen2010
spatial analysis

Space-Time Geary's C

Space-Time Geary's C extends the classical Geary contiguity ratio to panel or longitudinal spatial data, measuring autocorrelation across both geographic neighbors and adjacent time periods simultaneously. Values below 1 indicate positive space-time clustering; values above 1 indicate dispersion, and a value near 1 sug

2 bronnen1954
spatial analysis

Space-Time Getis-Ord Gi*

The Space-Time Getis-Ord Gi* statistic extends the classic Gi* local hot spot measure into three dimensions — two spatial and one temporal — revealing not only where concentrations of high or low values cluster, but how those clusters evolve, intensify, or diminish over time. It is widely used in crime analysis, epidem

2 bronnen1992
spatial analysis

Space-Time Hot Spot Analysis

Space-Time Hot Spot Analysis extends the classic Getis-Ord Gi* statistic across repeated time slices organised in a space-time cube. By testing each location-time bin for statistically significant clustering of high or low values, then examining the sequence of results over time, it identifies whether clusters are new,

2 bronnen1997
spatial analysis

Space-Time Kernel Density Estimation

Space-Time Kernel Density Estimation extends classical KDE into three dimensions — two spatial and one temporal — to reveal how the intensity of point events (crimes, accidents, disease cases) varies continuously across both geographic space and time. It produces a smooth probabilistic surface that highlights where and

2 bronnen2010
spatial analysis

Space-Time Kriging

Space-Time Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation method that predicts an unknown variable at any location and time by borrowing strength from nearby observations in both space and time simultaneously. It models the joint spatial-temporal covariance structure through a space-time variogram, then uses optimal linear

2 bronnen1999
spatial analysis

Space-Time Local Indicators of Spatial Association

Space-Time Local Indicators of Spatial Association (ST-LISA) extend the classic LISA framework of Anselin (1995) into the temporal dimension, identifying locations that exhibit statistically significant spatial clustering or spatial outlier behavior consistently or intermittently across multiple time periods. They deco

2 bronnen1995
spatial analysis

Space-Time Moran's I

Space-Time Moran's I extends the classic Moran's I statistic into the spatiotemporal domain, measuring whether observations that are close in both space and time tend to be more similar than those that are distant. It detects clustering, dispersion, or randomness across a combined space-time weight matrix, making it a

2 bronnen1981
spatial analysis

Space-Time Network-Based Spatial Analysis

Space-Time Network-Based Spatial Analysis integrates network topology with temporal constraints to model how people, goods, or phenomena move through geographic networks over time. Rooted in Hägerstrand's time-geography, it evaluates accessibility, interaction potential, and movement patterns along real-world infrastru

2 bronnen1970
spatial analysis

Space-Time Ordinary Kriging

Space-Time Ordinary Kriging (STOK) is a geostatistical interpolation method that predicts a spatially and temporally varying phenomenon at unsampled space-time locations by combining the ordinary kriging assumption of an unknown, locally constant mean with a joint space-time covariance (or variogram) structure. It prod

2 bronnen1999
spatial analysis

Space-Time Remote Sensing Classification

Space-Time Remote Sensing Classification extends standard image classification to multi-temporal satellite or aerial imagery, enabling analysts to track land cover change, phenological cycles, and environmental dynamics across both space and time. By incorporating the temporal dimension, classifiers achieve higher accu

2 bronnen1980
spatial analysis

Space-Time Spatial Autocorrelation

Space-Time Spatial Autocorrelation extends classic spatial autocorrelation measures — most notably Moran's I — to data that vary across both geographic units and time periods. It detects whether nearby locations that are also temporally close tend to share similar attribute values, revealing clusters, trends, or anomal

2 bronnen1981
spatial analysis

Space-Time Spatial Durbin Model

The Space-Time Spatial Durbin Model extends the cross-sectional Spatial Durbin Model to panel data, simultaneously capturing spatial spillovers in both the dependent variable and the explanatory variables across space and over time. It is the most general and flexible specification in the spatial panel family, nesting

2 bronnen2009
spatial analysis

Space-Time Spatial Error Model

The Space-Time Spatial Error Model (space-time SEM) is a spatial panel regression technique that accounts for spatial dependence confined to the error term across geographic units and time periods. It corrects biased inference caused by spatially correlated disturbances while estimating covariate effects on a panel of

2 bronnen1988
spatial analysis

Space-Time Spatial Lag Model

The Space-Time Spatial Lag Model extends the classic spatial autoregressive (SAR) lag model to panel data, capturing how the outcome in each location at each time point is influenced by the contemporaneous outcomes of neighboring locations, while also controlling for unit-specific and time-specific fixed effects.

2 bronnen2003
spatial analysis

Space-Time Spatial Panel Model

The Space-Time Spatial Panel Model extends standard spatial panel econometrics to jointly account for cross-sectional spatial dependence, temporal autocorrelation, and unit-level heterogeneity. It allows outcomes in one location and time period to be influenced by outcomes in neighboring locations and by the location's

2 bronnen2003
spatial analysis

Space-Time Spatial Regression

Space-Time Spatial Regression extends classical spatial regression to panel settings where georeferenced units are observed across multiple time periods. By embedding a spatial weights matrix into a panel regression framework, it simultaneously controls for spatial dependence among cross-sectional units and temporal dy

2 bronnen1990
spatial analysis

Space-Time Universal Kriging

Space-Time Universal Kriging (STUK) is a geostatistical method that interpolates a continuously varying phenomenon across both space and time while explicitly modelling a deterministic trend component. It generalises Universal Kriging to the joint space-time domain, producing unbiased optimal predictions and associated

2 bronnen1999
spatial analysis

Spatial Autocorrelation

Spatial autocorrelation quantifies the degree to which a variable's values at nearby locations resemble each other more (positive autocorrelation) or less (negative autocorrelation) than expected by chance. Global indices such as Moran's I summarise the pattern across the entire study area, while local variants reveal

2 bronnen1950
spatial analysis

Spatial Durbin Model

The Spatial Durbin Model is a general spatial regression model that includes a spatial lag of both the dependent variable (ρWy) and the explanatory variables (WXθ). Introduced as the recommended starting point by LeSage and Pace (2009), it nests the spatial autoregressive (SAR) and spatial error (SEM) models as special

2 bronnen2009
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