按方法、领域与证据探索科学。

Prompt Engineering

Prompt engineering is the practice of crafting structured natural-language instructions — prompts — to elicit targeted outputs from large language models (LLMs). Formalised by Brown et al. (2020) in the context of GPT-3 and extended by Wei et al. (2022) with chain-of-thought prompting, it encompasses four main strategi

text mining

Propaganda Detection

Propaganda detection is a natural-language-processing task that automatically identifies and labels persuasion and manipulation techniques in text — such as loaded language, oversimplified solutions, bandwagon appeals, and glittering generalities. It builds on the fine-grained propaganda analysis introduced by Da San M

aerospace

Propeller Lifting Line

Propeller lifting line theory is a mathematical framework for analyzing and designing ship propellers by modeling each blade as a lifting line with circulation distribution. Developed by Sydney Goldstein in 1929 and refined by Kerwin and others, the method accounts for blade loading, wake effects, and propeller interac

aerospace

Proportional Navigation

Proportional Navigation (PN) is a guidance law that generates command accelerations proportional to the rate of change of the line-of-sight angle between a pursuer and target. Introduced by Lin-Hsiung Chu in the 1950s, it became the foundation of modern missile guidance systems. PN solves the pursuit-evasion problem by

electrical engineering

Protection Relay Coordination

Protection relay coordination ensures that when a fault occurs, the relay nearest to the fault operates first, isolating only the faulted section while keeping healthy portions of the network energized. This selective clearing strategy minimizes service disruption and is achieved by carefully coordinating pickup curren

mining engineering

Pseudoflow

The Pseudoflow Algorithm, developed by Dorit Hochbaum in 1992, is a polynomial-time algorithm for computing maximum weighted closures in directed acyclic graphs. In mining, it solves the ultimate pit limit problem more efficiently than earlier methods. By maintaining feasible pseudoflows and iteratively eliminating neg

civil engineering

Pushover Analysis

Pushover analysis is a nonlinear static method for assessing seismic structural performance. Introduced by Fajfar in 1996 as part of the N2 method, it progressively increases lateral loads on a structure until it reaches a target displacement, revealing how structures deform and yield under seismic events.

mining engineering

Q-System

The Q-System (NGI Index), introduced by Nick Barton and colleagues at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute in 1974, is an alternative rock mass classification to RMR. It combines six parameters into a dimensionless index Q ranging from 0.001 to 1000, where higher Q values indicate better rock quality. The Q-System is p

aerospace

Quaternion Attitude

Quaternion attitude representation is a mathematical framework for describing three-dimensional rotations using four-dimensional vectors (quaternions). Superior to Euler angles due to the absence of singularities (gimbal lock), quaternions are the standard representation in modern attitude estimation, spacecraft contro

text mining

Question Answering

Question answering is a natural-language-processing task that automatically answers natural-language questions grounded in a given context passage, using either extractive or generative approaches. The task was crystallised by the SQuAD benchmark of Rajpurkar et al. (2016), and later models such as XLNet (Yang et al.,

reliability engineering

Rainflow Counting

Rainflow counting is a fatigue cycle counting method that converts a complex stress history into individual cycles for damage assessment. Developed by Tatsuo Endo and colleagues in 1974, it provides the most physically realistic representation of fatigue damage when combined with Miner's linear cumulative damage hypoth

materials science

Raman Deconvolution

Raman Deconvolution is the mathematical decomposition of experimental Raman spectra into constituent peaks using spectral fitting algorithms. Building on Raman spectroscopy (discovered by C.V. Raman in 1928), Raman deconvolution resolves overlapping vibrational bands into individual component peaks, revealing detailed

control theory

Rapidly-Exploring Random Tree

The Rapidly-Exploring Random Tree (RRT) is a motion planning algorithm that builds a tree of feasible paths by iteratively sampling random configurations in the workspace and connecting them to the nearest existing node in the tree. Introduced by LaValle in 1998, RRT is a breakthrough for high-dimensional motion planni

telecommunications

Ray Tracing Propagation

Ray tracing is a deterministic propagation modeling technique for predicting electromagnetic field strength at specific locations. Instead of empirical formulas (like Okumura-Hata), ray tracing traces paths of electromagnetic energy as it reflects, diffracts, and scatters off buildings and terrain. With accurate 3D geo

electrical engineering

Reactive Power Compensation

Reactive power compensation adjusts the flow of reactive power (VARs) in electrical networks to support voltage profiles, reduce losses, and improve power factor. Methods include fixed capacitor banks, switched capacitors, synchronous condensers, and FACTS devices. Proper compensation is essential for maintaining volta

text mining

Readability Analysis

Readability analysis measures how well a text suits its intended audience by applying established readability formulas such as Flesch-Kincaid and Gunning Fog. The modern formula family was derived by Kincaid and colleagues in 1975, and it turns prose into a single score or target reading-grade level that signals how ea

text mining

Relation Extraction

Relation extraction is a natural-language-processing task that detects and classifies the semantic relations that hold between entities mentioned in text. Building on early kernel-based methods (Zelenko and colleagues, 2003) and later neural matching approaches (Baldini Soares and colleagues, 2019), it turns free-form

civil engineering

Response Spectrum Analysis

Response spectrum analysis is a linear modal method for estimating earthquake-induced forces and displacements in structures. Introduced by Housner in 1941, this approach uses design spectra that represent the maximum response of single-degree-of-freedom oscillators at different natural frequencies to compute the struc

reliability engineering

Response Surface Desirability Function

Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is a set of statistical and mathematical techniques for modeling and optimizing processes with multiple inputs (factors) and outputs (responses). The Desirability Function approach, introduced by Harrington (1965) and refined by Derringer and Suich (1980), extends RSM to solve multi-r

text mining

Retrieval-Augmented Generation

Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) is a natural-language-processing pipeline introduced by Lewis et al. in 2020 that strengthens a large language model (LLM) with evidence fetched at inference time from an external knowledge base. Instead of relying solely on what a model memorised during training, RAG first retrieve

mining engineering

Rock Mass Rating

The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system, developed by Zbigniew Bieniawski starting in 1973, is an empirical classification that characterizes rock mass quality and estimates mining and civil engineering behavior. RMR combines five measurable geotechnical parameters into a single index ranging from 0 to 100, where higher valu

mining engineering

Rosin-Rammler Distribution

The Rosin-Rammler Distribution, introduced by Paul Rosin and Erich Rammler in 1933, is an empirical probability distribution that describes the particle size distribution of ground or crushed materials. It characterizes fineness by two parameters: the characteristic size (d-prime) and the uniformity index (n). This dis

electrical engineering

S-Parameter Analysis

S-Parameters (Scattering Parameters) characterize RF and microwave networks by their transmission and reflection of voltage waves. Introduced by Kurokawa in 1965, S-parameters are ideal for high frequencies where wave effects dominate. Unlike impedance (Z), admittance (Y), or hybrid parameters, S-parameters are directl

biomechanics

Scaffold Porosity Analysis

Scaffold porosity analysis characterizes the pore structure of tissue engineering scaffolds, including total porosity, pore size distribution, pore shape, and pore interconnectivity. Essential for predicting cell seeding, nutrient diffusion, and mechanical properties, this quantitative approach bridges scaffold design

text mining

Scientific Text Mining

Scientific text mining is a natural-language-processing pipeline applied to academic literature. Grounded in domain-specific pretrained models such as SciBERT (Beltagy et al., 2019) and SPECTER (Cohan et al., 2020), it automatically extracts hypotheses, methodologies, findings, and scholarly contributions from full-tex

aerospace

Seakeeping Strip Theory

Seakeeping strip theory is a method for predicting the dynamic motion of a ship in regular and irregular waves by decomposing the hull into two-dimensional transverse sections (strips) and computing the hydrodynamic forces on each strip. Developed by Salvesen, Tuck, and Faltinsen in 1970, the method efficiently estimat

materials science

Selected Area Electron Diffraction

Selected Area Electron Diffraction (SAED) is a crystallographic technique in transmission electron microscopy that obtains electron diffraction patterns from micron-sized or sub-micron crystalline regions. Developed from fundamental principles of electron wave behavior and integrated into TEM instruments by the mid-20t

text mining

Semantic Parsing

Semantic parsing is a natural-language-processing task that converts free-text utterances into executable formal representations such as SQL queries, logical forms, or Abstract Meaning Representations (AMR). Established in its supervised learning form by Zelle and Mooney in 1996 and scaled to cross-domain settings by t

text mining

Semantic Role Labeling

Semantic role labeling, introduced by Gildea and Jurafsky in 2002, is a natural-language-processing task that assigns semantic roles — who did what to whom, where, when, and how — to the components around a verb (predicate) in a sentence. It turns plain text into structured predicate-argument representations and is a f

text mining

Semantic Similarity

Semantic similarity analysis measures how close in meaning two texts are, rather than how many words they share on the surface. Building on the Sentence-BERT work of Reimers and Gurevych (2019), it represents each text as a vector and compares those vectors so that paraphrases score high even when their wording differs

text mining

Sentiment Analysis

Sentiment analysis, also called opinion mining, is a natural-language-processing task that detects the emotional tone of text — typically classifying it as positive, negative, or neutral. It turns unstructured opinion text into structured, quantifiable polarity signals using one of three families of approaches: sentime

aerospace

SGP4 TLE Propagation

SGP4 (Simplified General Perturbations 4) is a rapid orbital propagation method that predicts satellite position and velocity from Two-Line Element (TLE) sets published by NORAD. Developed in the 1970s, SGP4 accounts for atmospheric drag, gravitational perturbations, and solar radiation pressure using simplified analyt

telecommunications

Shannon Capacity

Shannon's channel capacity theorem, published in 1948, establishes the maximum rate at which information can be reliably transmitted over a noisy channel. Expressed as C = B log2(1 + S/N) for additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN), it is a fundamental bound in information theory and communications engineering. Shannon pr

mining engineering

Shrinking Core Model

The Shrinking Core Model, formalized by Szekely, Evans, and Sohn in 1976, describes the kinetics of chemical reactions between solid ore particles and surrounding fluids (leaching solutions, roasting gases). As the reaction proceeds from the particle surface inward, an unreacted core shrinks while products accumulate i

control theory

Simultaneous Localization and Mapping

Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) is the problem of enabling a mobile robot to build a map of its environment while simultaneously determining its own location within that map using noisy sensor measurements. Formulated by Durrant-Whyte and Bailey in 2006, SLAM is fundamental to autonomous robotics, enabling

mining engineering

Slag Basicity

Slag basicity is a measure of the composition of slag formed during smelting and roasting operations. It is typically expressed as the ratio of basic oxides (CaO, MgO) to acidic oxides (SiO2). Basicity controls slag fluidity, viscosity, and reactivity, directly affecting metal recovery, processing temperature, and prod

control theory

Sliding Mode Control

Sliding Mode Control (SMC) is a robust nonlinear control technique that forces a system to follow a predetermined surface (the sliding surface) in state space by using discontinuous (bang-bang or high-frequency switching) control inputs. Developed by Utkin and further advanced by Slotine, SMC is remarkably insensitive

civil engineering

Slope Stability (Bishop-Janbu)

The Bishop and Janbu methods are limit equilibrium approaches for analyzing slope stability, computing the factor of safety against shear failure along a potential slip surface. Developed by Bishop (1955) and Janbu (1954), these methods remain the most widely used tools in geotechnical engineering for evaluating cut sl

text mining

Slot Filling

Slot filling is a natural-language-understanding task that extracts predefined template fields — such as date, location, or product name — from a user utterance. It emerged as a core component of dialogue systems and form-based information extraction, and became widely studied after Goo et al. (2018) introduced the Slo

telecommunications

Slotted ALOHA

Slotted ALOHA is a fundamental random access protocol enabling multiple devices to share a wireless channel without centralized coordination. Introduced by Abramson (1970) and refined by Roberts (1975), it divides time into fixed slots and allows devices to transmit at the beginning of a slot with a fixed probability.

electrical engineering

Smart Grid State Estimation

Power system state estimation infers the real-time voltage and phase angle at every bus in a power network from redundant measurements of power flows and voltages. It is the foundation of modern grid operations, enabling real-time monitoring, contingency analysis, and optimal control. Advanced state estimation with syn

electrical engineering

Smith Chart

The Smith Chart is a graphical tool for visualizing and manipulating complex impedances and reflection coefficients on transmission lines. Introduced by Phillip Smith in 1939, the chart maps the complex reflection coefficient plane to a circular chart, enabling intuitive graphical analysis of transmission line problems

text mining

Social Media NLP

Social Media NLP is a specialised natural-language-processing pipeline designed for the short, noisy, and informal text that appears on platforms such as Twitter, Reddit, and comment sections. Unlike general-purpose NLP, this pipeline accounts for platform-specific conventions — hashtags, emojis, abbreviations, and cod

software engineering

Software Complexity Metrics

Software complexity metrics quantify the structural and operational difficulty of code through numerical measurements. Introduced by Thomas McCabe in 1976, cyclomatic complexity became the foundational approach. These metrics assess maintainability, testability, and defect risk, enabling teams to identify problematic c

civil engineering

Soil-Structure Interaction

Soil-structure interaction (SSI) analysis accounts for the dynamic coupling between a structure and its supporting foundation soil, recognizing that the soil is not infinitely rigid. Formalized by Veletsos in 1974, this approach reveals how foundation compliance, radiation damping, and kinematic effects modify the stru

architecture

Space Syntax Analysis

Space Syntax Analysis is a quantitative method for assessing spatial configuration in buildings and urban environments through graph-based representations. Developed by Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson in the 1980s, it quantifies how spatial layout affects human movement, visibility, and social interaction.

aerospace

Specific Excess Power

Specific excess power (Ps) is a metric that quantifies the rate of change of energy per unit weight, representing how quickly an aircraft can trade speed for altitude (or vice versa) at a given flight condition. Developed by John Boyd in the 1970s as part of energy maneuverability theory, Ps is essential for assessing

text mining

Speculation Detection

Speculation detection, also known as hedging analysis, is a natural-language-processing task that identifies epistemic uncertainty markers — words and phrases such as 'may', 'possibly', 'it is suggested that' — within scientific, biomedical, and news texts. Formalised by Hyland (1996) for scientific writing and benchma

text mining

Spelling and Grammar Check

Spelling and grammar checking is a text-mining task that detects spelling mistakes and grammatical errors in text and proposes corrections. Building on Naber's rule-based style and grammar checker (2003) and Norvig's statistical spelling corrector (2009), it is used for data-quality assessment and text normalisation be

text mining

Stance Detection

Stance detection is a natural-language-processing task that decides the position a text takes toward a specific claim, event, or topic — labelling it as favor, against, or neutral. Formalised by Mohammad et al. in the SemEval-2016 Task 6 shared task, it differs from plain sentiment analysis because the label is always

software engineering

Static Code Analysis

Static code analysis automatically examines source code without execution, detecting potential bugs, security vulnerabilities, code smells, and style violations. Pioneered by Engler and Pugh (2001), automated analysis tools scan codebases at scale, identifying defect patterns faster than manual review. Organizations in

electrical engineering

Static Timing Analysis

Static Timing Analysis (STA) is a non-simulation method for verifying that digital circuits meet timing constraints (clock frequencies, setup/hold times, propagation delays). Introduced systematically by Bhatnagar et al. in the 1990s, STA computes worst-case and best-case path delays by analyzing logic paths without si

mining engineering

Stereographic Slope Analysis

Stereographic projection is a graphical method for analyzing slope stability by representing the three-dimensional orientation of discontinuities (joints, bedding, faults) and the pit slope on a two-dimensional stereographic net (stereonet). The method enables rapid visual identification of potentially unstable slope g

mining engineering

Stope Layout

Stope layout optimization is the process of designing the size, shape, and spatial arrangement of underground mine excavations (stopes) to maximize ore recovery while maintaining safety and economic viability. It balances the desire for large extraction volumes against rock mechanics constraints and support costs. The

architecture

Structural Form-Finding

Structural Form-Finding is a computational method for discovering structural geometries that are efficient under given loads and constraints. Pioneered by Heinz Schek in 1974, it reverses traditional structural design: rather than imposing a predetermined form and then analyzing whether it is strong enough, form-findin

civil engineering

Structural Health Monitoring

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is a process-based engineering methodology used in civil, mechanical, and aerospace engineering to continuously assess the condition of structures — bridges, buildings, dams, pipelines, and aircraft — through embedded or attached sensor networks. By acquiring real-time or periodic mea

text mining

Structured Text Extraction

Structured text extraction is a document-processing pipeline that automatically identifies and pulls tables, form fields, and structured data from PDF, HTML, and scanned documents. It converts heterogeneous document layouts into machine-readable, analysis-ready records and is widely used in data collection workflows, d

text mining

Subjectivity Detection

Subjectivity detection is a natural-language-processing task that classifies whether a sentence or document conveys objective (neutral information) or subjective (personal opinion, emotion) content. Grounded in the opinion-annotation work of Wiebe and colleagues (2005) and Pang and Lee (2004), it is most often used as

electrical engineering

Subsynchronous Resonance

Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) is a phenomenon where frequencies below the synchronous frequency (50/60 Hz) are amplified in power systems, causing oscillations that can damage turbines. First observed in Bushland, Texas in 1977, SSR results from interaction between series-compensated transmission lines and synchronous

electrical engineering

Symmetrical Components

Symmetrical Components is a mathematical technique for analyzing unbalanced three-phase electrical circuits by decomposing them into balanced component sets. Introduced by Charles Fortescue in 1918, the method transforms the complex analysis of unbalanced systems into simpler balanced equivalent circuits. Symmetrical c