What are the four marks of the church?

The Nicene Creed confesses the church as 'one, holy, catholic, and apostolic'; theologians interpret these marks as describing the church's God-given unity, holiness, universality, and continuity with the apostles.

Why do traditions disagree about the number of sacraments?

Catholic and Orthodox churches count seven sacraments, while most Protestants recognize two (baptism and the Lord's Supper) on the ground that only these were directly instituted by Christ in the Gospels.

Ecclesiology and Sacraments

Ecclesiology is the doctrine of the church, and sacramental theology concerns the rites by which, in Christian understanding, grace is signified and conveyed.

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Definition

The combined doctrine of the church and of the sacraments as means of grace.

Scope

This area covers the nature, origin, and mission of the church; its traditional marks (one, holy, catholic, apostolic); models of the church (body of Christ, people of God, communion); the definition and number of the sacraments; baptism and the Eucharist in particular; and the theology of ministry, ordination, and ecclesial authority. It treats Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant positions and ecumenical convergences. The presentation is descriptive, comparing traditions with comparative notes where apt.

Sub-topics

Core questions

What is the church, and what makes it the church?
What are the sacraments, and how many are there?
How is Christ present in baptism and the Eucharist?
Where does authority in the church reside?

Key theories

Church as communion (koinonia): The eucharistic ecclesiology, developed by John Zizioulas, that the church is constituted as a communion of persons grounded in the trinitarian communion and realized in the gathered eucharistic assembly around the bishop.
Sacrament as sign and instrument of grace: The classical Augustinian and scholastic account of a sacrament as a visible sign of an invisible grace, which (on the Catholic and Orthodox view) effects what it signifies ex opere operato.

History

Reflection on the church developed from the New Testament images and the patristic emphasis on unity (Cyprian, Augustine). The medieval West fixed seven sacraments, defined at the Councils of Florence and Trent. The Reformation reduced the sacraments to those instituted by Christ (usually baptism and the Lord's Supper) and redefined the church around word and gospel. Twentieth-century ecumenism (Vatican II's Lumen Gentium, the WCC's Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry) sought convergence.

Debates

Number and efficacy of the sacraments: Whether there are seven sacraments (Catholic and Orthodox) or two dominical ones (most Protestants), and whether sacraments convey grace by the act performed or chiefly as signs strengthening faith.
Visible versus invisible church: Whether 'the church' is primarily the visible institution with its structures and sacraments or the invisible communion of all the elect, with consequences for unity and the boundaries of the church.

Key figures

Cyprian of Carthage
Augustine of Hippo
John Calvin
John Zizioulas

Seminal works

lumengentium1964
wcc1982bem
zizioulas1985

Frequently asked questions

What are the four marks of the church?: The Nicene Creed confesses the church as 'one, holy, catholic, and apostolic'; theologians interpret these marks as describing the church's God-given unity, holiness, universality, and continuity with the apostles.
Why do traditions disagree about the number of sacraments?: Catholic and Orthodox churches count seven sacraments, while most Protestants recognize two (baptism and the Lord's Supper) on the ground that only these were directly instituted by Christ in the Gospels.