按方法、领域与证据探索科学。

Thermal Comfort Assessment

Thermal Comfort Assessment is a method for evaluating indoor environmental conditions to predict whether occupants will feel thermally comfortable. Pioneered by Povl Ole Fanger in the 1970s, it combines measurements of air temperature, humidity, air speed, and thermal properties of clothing and activity to determine co

materials science

Thermogravimetric Analysis

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) is a thermal characterization technique that continuously measures mass loss or gain of a material as a function of temperature (or time at constant temperature). Developed systematically by William Wendlandt and colleagues in the 1960s, TGA identifies thermal transitions (evaporation,

text mining

Timeline Extraction

Timeline extraction is a natural-language-processing task that identifies events mentioned in text, anchors each event to a temporal expression, and arranges them into a chronologically ordered timeline. Formalised through the TempEval shared tasks (Verhagen et al., 2010), it enables automatic reconstruction of histori

telecommunications

Token Bucket

Token bucket is a simple and elegant algorithm for traffic shaping and rate limiting. A virtual bucket accumulates tokens at a fixed rate (the committed information rate). Incoming packets consume tokens (one token per byte); packets are transmitted only if sufficient tokens are available. If the bucket is full, excess

text mining

Topic Modeling (LDA)

Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is a generative probabilistic model introduced by Blei, Ng and Jordan (2003) that extracts the hidden topic distributions underlying a collection of documents. It treats each document as a mixture of latent topics and each topic as a distribution over words, turning an unlabelled corpu

reliability engineering

Topology Optimization

Topology Optimization is a computational method for distributing material optimally within a design space to maximize structural performance (strength, stiffness) while minimizing weight or cost. The Solid Isotropic Material with Penalization (SIMP) method, developed by Bendsoe and Kikuchi (1988), iteratively refines a

civil engineering

Traffic Flow (LWR Model)

The Lighthill-Whitham-Richards (LWR) model is a macroscopic traffic flow model that treats traffic as a compressible fluid, applying conservation of vehicles and a flow-density relationship. Introduced independently by Lighthill and Whitham (1955) and Richards (1956), the model predicts traffic wave propagation, conges

electrical engineering

Transmission-Line Matrix Method

The Transmission-Line Matrix (TLM) method is a direct discretization of Maxwell equations using an equivalent transmission line network. Introduced by Johns and Beurle in 1971, TLM models electromagnetic fields as voltage and current waves propagating on coupled transmission lines. The method is intuitive, numerically

biomaterials

Transwell Assay

The Transwell assay (also called the Boyden chamber assay after its originator Stephen Boyden) is a quantitative method for measuring cell migration and invasion in response to chemical gradients or through matrix barriers. The assay uses a membrane insert with defined pore size suspended in a multi-well plate: cells a

mining engineering

Tromp Curve

The Tromp Curve, introduced by K. Tromp in 1937, is an empirical model that quantifies the performance of size classifiers (cyclones, screens, jigs) by showing the fraction of particles at each size that report to the target stream (overflow or underflow). It is universally used in mineral processing to evaluate classi

telecommunications

Turbo Code

Turbo codes, introduced by Berrou, Glavieux, and Thitimajshima in 1993, are a landmark in channel coding history. They achieve performance within 0.5 dB of the Shannon limit—the theoretical boundary for reliable communication—a feat previously thought impossible with practical complexity. Turbo codes use concatenated c

electrical engineering

Unit Commitment

Unit Commitment (UC) is the problem of deciding which power generation units should be switched on or off over a planning horizon (typically 24-168 hours) to minimize total operating cost while meeting demand and reserve requirements. Introduced by Baldwin et al. in 1959, UC is a fundamental scheduling problem in power

civil engineering

Unit Hydrograph

The unit hydrograph (UH) is a linear transformation that converts rainfall excess into streamflow for a watershed. Introduced by Sherman in 1932, the UH assumes that rainfall-runoff response is linear and time-invariant, enabling synthesis of flood hydrographs from design storms for dam spillway design and flood risk a

control theory

Unscented Kalman Filter

The Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) is a nonlinear state estimation algorithm that approximates nonlinear systems without requiring explicit Jacobian computation. Introduced by Julier and Uhlmann in 1997, the UKF uses the unscented transform—a deterministic method to capture mean and covariance statistics through a caref

architecture

Urban Form Analysis

Urban Form Analysis is a systematic method for studying and characterizing the physical structure, layout, and historical development of cities and neighborhoods. Pioneered by M.R.G. Conzen in 1960, it examines how blocks, streets, plots, and buildings combine to create distinct urban patterns, and how these patterns i

software engineering

Use Case Point Estimation

Use case point (UCP) estimation quantifies software development effort by analyzing use cases and environmental factors. Introduced by Karner (1993) for Objectory methodology, UCP provides structured approach to estimate labor hours from system requirements. Organizations use UCP to forecast project duration, allocate

materials science

Vickers Hardness

Vickers Hardness testing is a mechanical characterization technique for determining material hardness by pressing a diamond pyramid indenter into a material surface under controlled load and measuring the resulting indent dimensions. Invented by Smith and Sandland in 1922, Vickers hardness is applicable across an enorm

mining engineering

Washability

Washability analysis is a laboratory method that determines the feasibility and efficiency of density-based separation for coal or mineral beneficiation. By fractionating ore or coal into density bins using sink-float tests and assaying each fraction, engineers can optimize design of separation plants (dense-medium cyc

environmental engineering

Wastewater Treatment Design

Wastewater treatment design is the comprehensive planning and engineering of municipal and industrial treatment plants to remove contaminants (organic matter, nutrients, pathogens, trace organics) from domestic and industrial wastewater. Modern treatment plants integrate preliminary screening, primary settlement, secon

architecture

Wayfinding Analysis

Wayfinding Analysis is a method for assessing how easily people can navigate and orient themselves in buildings and urban environments. Rooted in Kevin Lynch's concept of legibility and developed further by Romedi Passini, it combines cognitive psychology, design principles, and empirical testing to diagnose navigation

aerospace

Weight and Balance

Weight and balance analysis is the process of determining the total weight of an aircraft and the location of its center of gravity (CG) throughout its operational envelope. Essential for aircraft safety and performance, weight and balance ensures that the CG remains within allowable limits (forward and aft) to maintai

biomechanics

Windkessel Model

The Windkessel model is a lumped-parameter representation of the arterial system that captures the pulsatile dynamics of blood flow and pressure using simple mechanical analogs (resistors and capacitors). Named after the German word for air chamber, it was formalized by Westerhof and colleagues in the late 1960s and re

text mining

Word Sense Disambiguation

Word sense disambiguation (WSD) is the natural-language-processing task of choosing the correct meaning of a polysemous word from its context. Surveyed by Navigli (2009), it resolves which sense of a many-meaning word applies in a given sentence, improving the quality of information retrieval, machine translation, and

text mining

Word2Vec

Word2Vec is a neural word-embedding technique introduced by Mikolov and colleagues in 2013 that maps each word in a text corpus to a dense numeric vector. Words that appear in similar contexts end up close together in the vector space, so the embeddings capture semantic similarity that can be measured arithmetically.

materials science

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), also known as Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA), is a surface-sensitive analytical technique that measures the kinetic energies of photoelectrons ejected from a material by high-energy X-rays. Developed by Kai Siegbahn in 1967, XPS determines elemental compositio

materials science

XRD Rietveld Refinement

XRD Rietveld Refinement is a method for extracting detailed crystal structure information from powder diffraction data by comparing observed and calculated diffraction patterns through least-squares refinement. Developed by Hugo Rietveld in 1969, this technique enables determination of atomic positions, occupancies, th

civil engineering

Yield Line Theory

Yield Line Theory is a plastic limit-analysis method used in structural civil engineering to determine the ultimate load-carrying capacity of reinforced concrete slabs. Developed by K. W. Johansen in the 1940s, it assumes that at failure the slab subdivides into rigid regions separated by lines of intense plastic rotat

text mining

Zero-Shot Classification

Zero-shot classification is a natural-language-processing task that assigns text to categories described in plain language without requiring any labelled training data. Formalised as an entailment problem by Yin, Hay and Roth (2019), it lets a large pretrained language model recognise new categories on the fly simply b

telecommunications

ZF/MMSE Equalization

Zero-Forcing (ZF) and Minimum Mean-Square Error (MMSE) equalization are fundamental linear receiver algorithms for combating intersymbol interference in dispersive channels. Developed in the context of data transmission theory, these methods form the basis of modern channel equalization in wireless and wired systems. W

control theory

Ziegler-Nichols Tuning

Ziegler-Nichols Tuning is a practical, model-free method for tuning PID controller gains empirically. Published in 1942, this pioneering method requires only measurement of the system's step response (or closed-loop oscillations), making it applicable to any system without prior identification. Ziegler-Nichols remains