Survey — Survey Research
Survey Research · Also known as: questionnaire survey, survey research, self-report survey, questionnaire study
A survey is a systematic data-collection method in which a standardised set of questions is posed to a sample of respondents to measure attitudes, behaviours, demographics, or other constructs. Surveys can be administered via paper, telephone, online platforms, or face-to-face. They are among the most widely used instruments in social, behavioural, health, and educational research because they can reach large, geographically dispersed samples at relatively low cost.
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When to use it
Use a survey when you need to describe the distribution of attitudes, behaviours, or characteristics across a defined population, or to test relationships among variables in a large sample. Surveys are especially suited to cross-sectional prevalence studies, needs assessments, programme evaluations, and hypothesis-testing in social or health research. Do not use a survey when the research question requires deep exploration of lived experience (use phenomenology or in-depth interviews instead), when the constructs of interest resist self-report (use observation or physiological measures), or when the target population cannot be reached reliably through any survey mode. Avoid surveys for causal inference without longitudinal or experimental designs.
Strengths & limitations
- Reaches large, geographically dispersed samples efficiently at relatively low cost.
- Standardised questions ensure comparability of responses across respondents and over time.
- Flexible in mode (paper, phone, online, face-to-face) to suit different populations and budgets.
- Amenable to statistical generalisation when probability sampling is used.
- Can simultaneously measure multiple constructs and their inter-relationships.
- Established psychometric tools (Cronbach's alpha, factor analysis) support rigorous validity and reliability assessment.
- Self-report data are subject to social desirability bias, recall errors, and acquiescence bias.
- Fixed response options may not capture the full complexity or nuance of respondents' views.
- Cross-sectional surveys establish association, not causation; longitudinal designs are needed for temporal inference.
- Low response rates — common in online surveys — introduce non-response bias and threaten generalisability.
- Question wording effects can substantially distort results if items are poorly crafted.
Frequently asked
How large does my sample need to be?
Sample size depends on the desired margin of error, confidence level, expected effect size, and analysis plan. For descriptive surveys estimating a proportion, the standard formula is n = z²p(1-p)/e², where z is the z-score for the confidence level, p is the estimated proportion, and e is the margin of error. For analytical surveys testing relationships, an a priori power analysis based on the planned statistical test is preferable. Online calculators (e.g., G*Power) automate these calculations. Convenience-sample sizes common in student research (100–300) are often underpowered for subgroup analyses.
What response rate is acceptable?
There is no universal threshold. Online surveys commonly achieve 20–40%, mail surveys 50–60%, and telephone surveys have declined sharply. The more important question is whether non-response is random or systematic. Even a 20% response rate may be acceptable if you can demonstrate that respondents do not differ from non-respondents on key variables; conversely, a 70% response rate is still problematic if the missing 30% are systematically different.
Can I mix open-ended and closed questions?
Yes, and this is common practice. Closed items yield quantifiable data; open-ended items add contextual depth and allow unexpected responses. However, open items increase completion time substantially and generate text data that must be coded qualitatively. Limit open items to the constructs where fixed options genuinely cannot capture the range of responses.
When should I use a Likert scale versus a visual analogue scale?
Likert scales (typically 5 or 7 labelled response points) are easy to administer and score, and their psychometric properties are well understood. Visual analogue scales (continuous 0–100 lines) offer finer discrimination and are common in pain and health research. Likert scales suit most social and behavioural research; visual analogue scales are preferable when detecting small changes within individuals over time is the priority.
How is a survey different from a structured interview?
In a survey the respondent reads and self-completes the questionnaire without an interviewer present. In a structured interview the same fixed questions are delivered verbally by an interviewer. Surveys reach larger samples at lower cost; structured interviews achieve higher completion rates and can clarify confusing items but are more resource-intensive and introduce interviewer effects.
Sources
- Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J. D., & Christian, L. M. (2014). Internet, Phone, Mail, and Mixed-Mode Surveys: The Tailored Design Method (4th ed.). Wiley. ISBN: 978-1118456149
- Fowler, F. J. (2013). Survey Research Methods (5th ed.). Sage. ISBN: 978-1452259000
How to cite this page
ScholarGate. (2026, June 3). Survey Research. ScholarGate. https://scholargate.app/en/survey-methodology/survey
Which method?
Set this method beside its closest kin and read them side by side — the library lays the books on the table; the choice is yours.
- Delphi TechniqueSurvey Methodology↔ compare
- Face-to-face SurveySurvey Methodology↔ compare
- Longitudinal SurveySurvey Methodology↔ compare
- Mixed Methods ResearchQualitative↔ compare
- Online SurveySurvey Methodology↔ compare
- Structured InterviewSurvey Methodology↔ compare