Sport Motivation Scale (SMS)
Also known as: SMS, SMS-6
The SMS is a 24–28 item questionnaire measuring the motivational reasons athletes engage in sport, organized along the continuum of Self-Determination Theory: from intrinsic motivation (inherent enjoyment, mastery, excitement) through extrinsic forms (identified goals, introjected norms, external rewards) to amotivation (lack of intent). Developed by Pelletier and colleagues in 1995, the SMS has become the leading instrument for assessing sport motivation quality and predicting athlete engagement, retention, and psychological wellbeing.
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When to use it
Athlete retention and burnout prevention: Coaches and sports organizations use SMS to identify athletes at risk for dropout (low intrinsic, high amotivation) and tailor motivational approaches. Coaching style evaluation: SMS profiles inform coaching philosophy—do you coach for intrinsic engagement (autonomy-supportive) or external compliance (controlling)? Research on motivation–performance and motivation–wellbeing relationships; longitudinal studies tracking motivation change across competitive seasons; evaluation of motivational interventions (autonomy-supportive coaching training); talent development and youth sport program design; diagnosis of athlete burnout and recovery planning.
Strengths & limitations
- Theoretically grounded: Based on Self-Determination Theory, a robust, well-validated motivational framework with decades of empirical support across domains (education, health, work, sport).
- Predicts real-world outcomes: SMS motivation type is strongly associated with athlete retention, dropout risk, burnout, injury, and psychological wellbeing; intrinsic motivation predicts persistence; external/amotivation predicts attrition.
- Multidimensional: Distinguishes motivation types rather than treating motivation as a single continuum, revealing nuanced motivation structures (e.g., athletes high in both intrinsic and external motivation).
- Actionable for coaches: SMS results provide concrete feedback about coaching impact (do athletes feel autonomy and mastery, or controlled and pressured?) and guide targeted interventions.
- Cross-cultural robust: Validated in 30+ countries; universal motivational structures across cultures with some cultural variation in regulatory emphases.
- Brief: 24–28 items require only 5–8 minutes, minimal disruption to training or competition schedules.
- Self-reported motivation: Athletes may respond with social desirability bias (e.g., endorsing intrinsic motivation because it sounds better) rather than actual felt motivation. Emphasize anonymity and honesty.
- Snapshot assessment: SMS captures motivation at a single time point; motivation fluctuates with season phase, competition level, injuries, coach changes. Repeated measurement (minimum 3 time points per season) needed for stable assessment.
- Causality ambiguity: SMS does not clarify whether motivation type causes certain outcomes (e.g., does intrinsic motivation cause retention?) or is a consequence (does sustained participation build intrinsic motivation?). Longitudinal designs with lagged outcomes help clarify temporal relationships.
- Coaching environment confound: SMS measures athlete motivation but is jointly influenced by coach autonomy-support, perceived competence, and relatedness needs; individual differences in motivation sensitivity mean identical coaching produces different motivation profiles.
- Measurement invariance: Factor structure may vary across age groups, sport types, or cultures; always validate structure in your population before interpreting subscale scores.
Frequently asked
Is intrinsic motivation always better than extrinsic?
In general, yes: intrinsic motivation predicts sustained engagement, wellbeing, and reduced burnout. However, extrinsic forms (especially identified regulation—'I'm doing this for my personal goals') are compatible with wellbeing and performance. The ideal profile combines high intrinsic + identified with moderate external (realistic external contingencies like sponsorship or career) and low amotivation. Pure intrinsic motivation alone is unrealistic in competitive sport where external consequences exist; the goal is primarily self-determined motivation.
Can you change an athlete's motivation using SMS feedback?
SMS feedback alone does not change motivation; it reveals motivation structure. Motivation changes through coaching behavior and environmental design. If SMS shows an athlete is motivated primarily by guilt (high introjected) or external rewards (high external), the coach can shift toward autonomy-supportive approaches: offering choice, supporting competence development, and fostering meaningful relationships. This shifts the athlete's motivation toward intrinsic and identified forms over weeks/months.
What does a high amotivation score mean?
High amotivation (score >5) indicates the athlete lacks clear intention or belief in why they participate. Causes include low perceived competence ('I'm not good enough'), unclear goals ('I don't know what I'm working toward'), or burnout ('I've lost interest'). Investigate further: Is competence confidence the issue? Are goals unclear? Is the athlete burned out? Address the root cause through goal clarification, skill development, or recovery.
Can athletes be high in both intrinsic motivation and external regulation?
Yes, absolutely. A professional athlete may love their sport (high intrinsic) and be motivated by prize money/sponsorship (high external). This mixed profile is realistic and functional. The key is that intrinsic remains strong; external does not override it. If external becomes the primary driver and intrinsic declines, burnout risk rises.
How often should I administer SMS?
For research or detailed monitoring, administer SMS at baseline (season start), mid-season (week 6–8), and end-of-season, plus any post-intervention. For routine coaching, quarterly or bi-monthly assessments provide trend data without excessive burden. Single assessments provide limited insight; minimum 2 time points per season for trend analysis.
Does SMS correlate with actual performance outcomes?
SMS motivation type correlates with retention, injury, and wellbeing outcomes more strongly than with immediate performance. Intrinsic motivation predicts persistence through adversity, injury recovery, and sustained improvement; external motivation may temporarily boost performance but often erodes over time. For performance prediction, combine SMS with ability measures, not SMS alone.
Sources
- Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N. M., & Blais, M. R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17(1), 35–53. DOI: 10.1123/jsep.17.1.35 ↗
- Mallett, C. J., & Hanrahan, S. J. (2004). Elite athletes: Why does the 'fire' go out? Conceptualizing athlete burnout through selected organizational theories. Journal of Sport Sciences, 22(5), 389–397. link ↗
How to cite this page
ScholarGate. (2026, June 3). Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). ScholarGate. https://scholargate.app/en/sport-psychology/sport-motivation-scale
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