So sánh phương pháp

	Nghiên cứu so sánh nhân quả theo chiều dọc	Nghiên cứu nhân quả-so sánh
Lĩnh vực	Thiết kế nghiên cứu	Thiết kế nghiên cứu
Họ	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Năm ra đời	1970s–1980s (as an established combined design in educational and social research)	1964
Người khởi xướng	Synthesized from causal-comparative tradition (Kerlinger, 1973) and longitudinal design frameworks (Goldstein, 1979)	Fred N. Kerlinger
Loại	Non-experimental quantitative research design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
Công trình gốc	Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2009). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN: 978-0073525532	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Tên gọi khác	longitudinal ex post facto design, longitudinal causal-comparative design, repeated-measures causal-comparative research, prospective causal-comparative study	ex post facto research, causal-comparative design, retrospective causal study, CCR
Liên quan	4	3
Tóm tắt	Longitudinal causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design that compares pre-existing groups on one or more dependent variables across multiple measurement points over time. Unlike true experiments, the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable; instead, naturally occurring group differences (e.g., gender, socioeconomic status, diagnostic category) are examined to explore their relationship to outcomes as they evolve longitudinally.	Causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design in which the researcher compares two or more groups that already differ on an independent variable — one that was not manipulated — to investigate possible causes or consequences of that difference. Because group membership is pre-existing rather than randomly assigned, the design can suggest causal relationships but cannot establish them with the certainty of a true experiment. It is widely used in education, psychology, and social sciences when experimental manipulation is impractical or unethical.