Linganisha mbinu

	Upimaji wa Uthabiti wa Kipimo	Uchambuzi wa Utendaji Tofauti wa Kipengee (DIF)
Nyanja	Saikometriki	Saikometriki
Familia	Latent structure	Latent structure
Mwaka wa asili	2000	1988
Mwanzilishi	Vandenberg & Lance	Paul W. Holland & Dorothy T. Thayer (Mantel-Haenszel approach, 1988)
Aina	Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis procedure	Item-level fairness / measurement equivalence analysis
Chanzo asilia	Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4–70.	Holland, P. W. & Thayer, D. T. (1988). Differential Item Performance and the Mantel-Haenszel Procedure. ETS Research Report Series.
Majina mbadala	Factorial Invariance, Measurement Equivalence, Configural-Metric-Scalar Testing, Ölçüm Değişmezliği	Madde Yanlılık Analizi (DIF — Differential Item Functioning), item bias analysis, Mantel-Haenszel DIF, Lord chi-square DIF
Zinazohusiana	3	4
Muhtasari	Measurement invariance testing is a sequence of nested confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models that examines whether a psychological scale measures the same latent construct in the same way across distinct groups or time points. Systematized and popularized by Vandenberg and Lance (2000), the procedure tests a hierarchy of constraints — from identical factor patterns to identical item intercepts — so that researchers can justify meaningful group comparisons on latent means.	Differential Item Functioning analysis examines whether examinees from different groups — such as gender, ethnicity, or language background — who have the same underlying ability respond differently to a test item. First formalised by Holland and Thayer in 1988 via the Mantel-Haenszel procedure, it is the principal tool in modern test development for detecting and removing item bias.