Linganisha mbinu

	Uchambuzi wa Utendaji Tofauti wa Kipengee (DIF)	Upimaji wa Uthabiti wa Kipimo
Nyanja	Saikometriki	Saikometriki
Familia	Latent structure	Latent structure
Mwaka wa asili	1988	2000
Mwanzilishi	Paul W. Holland & Dorothy T. Thayer (Mantel-Haenszel approach, 1988)	Vandenberg & Lance
Aina	Item-level fairness / measurement equivalence analysis	Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis procedure
Chanzo asilia	Holland, P. W. & Thayer, D. T. (1988). Differential Item Performance and the Mantel-Haenszel Procedure. ETS Research Report Series.	Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4–70.
Majina mbadala	Madde Yanlılık Analizi (DIF — Differential Item Functioning), item bias analysis, Mantel-Haenszel DIF, Lord chi-square DIF	Factorial Invariance, Measurement Equivalence, Configural-Metric-Scalar Testing, Ölçüm Değişmezliği
Zinazohusiana	4	3
Muhtasari	Differential Item Functioning analysis examines whether examinees from different groups — such as gender, ethnicity, or language background — who have the same underlying ability respond differently to a test item. First formalised by Holland and Thayer in 1988 via the Mantel-Haenszel procedure, it is the principal tool in modern test development for detecting and removing item bias.	Measurement invariance testing is a sequence of nested confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models that examines whether a psychological scale measures the same latent construct in the same way across distinct groups or time points. Systematized and popularized by Vandenberg and Lance (2000), the procedure tests a hierarchy of constraints — from identical factor patterns to identical item intercepts — so that researchers can justify meaningful group comparisons on latent means.