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126 methods in Environment & Sustainability · StatisticsClear
Methods at the intersection of your two filters.
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spatial analysis

Bayesian Co-Kriging

Bayesian Co-Kriging is a multivariate geostatistical method that uses auxiliary spatially correlated variables to improve predictions of a primary variable of interest. By placing Bayesian priors on cross-covariance parameters, it propagates all uncertainty — including parameter uncertainty — into the prediction interv

2 sources1990
spatial analysis

Bayesian Geary's C

Bayesian Geary's C embeds the classical Geary contiguity ratio within a Bayesian hierarchical framework. Instead of a single point estimate and asymptotic p-value, it produces a posterior distribution over the statistic (or over spatially structured random effects), quantifying uncertainty about spatial autocorrelation

2 sources1954
spatial analysis

Bayesian Geographically Weighted Regression

Bayesian Geographically Weighted Regression combines the spatially varying coefficient framework of GWR with Bayesian inference, placing Gaussian process priors on the locally varying regression coefficients. This yields full posterior distributions over each coefficient at every location, providing principled uncertai

2 sources2007
spatial analysis

Bayesian Hot Spot Analysis

Bayesian Hot Spot Analysis identifies spatial clusters of elevated risk or intensity by combining observed data with prior beliefs about spatial structure. It uses Bayesian smoothing — pooling information across neighboring areas — to stabilize estimates in small areas and then flags locations where the posterior proba

2 sources1987
spatial analysis

Bayesian Kernel Density Estimation

Bayesian Kernel Density Estimation (BKDE) is a nonparametric method for estimating the probability density function of a spatial or attribute variable by combining a kernel smoother with a Bayesian prior over the bandwidth parameter. The posterior distribution of the bandwidth propagates uncertainty into the final dens

2 sources1995
spatial analysis

Bayesian Kriging

Bayesian Kriging embeds classical geostatistical interpolation inside a full probabilistic framework. Instead of treating variogram parameters as fixed point estimates, it places prior distributions on them and updates these priors with observed spatial data to obtain a posterior distribution. Predictions at unsampled

2 sources1993
spatial analysis

Bayesian Local Indicators of Spatial Association

Bayesian Local Indicators of Spatial Association extend the classical LISA framework by embedding local spatial association statistics within a Bayesian hierarchical model. Rather than relying on asymptotic permutation-based significance tests, this approach places prior distributions on spatial parameters and derives

2 sources2000
spatial analysis

Bayesian Moran's I

Bayesian Moran's I embeds the classical Moran's I spatial autocorrelation test within a Bayesian probabilistic framework. Rather than producing a single p-value, it yields a posterior distribution over the spatial autocorrelation parameter, enabling uncertainty quantification, incorporation of prior knowledge, and more

2 sources1950
spatial analysis

Bayesian Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression

Bayesian Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression (Bayesian MGWR) extends the MGWR framework by placing Bayesian priors on each spatially varying coefficient. Each predictor is allowed its own bandwidth — its own geographic scale of influence — while Bayesian inference replaces classical back-fitting with posterio

2 sources2017
spatial analysis

Bayesian Ordinary Kriging

Bayesian Ordinary Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation method that combines classical ordinary kriging with a Bayesian framework to jointly estimate the spatial covariance parameters and produce predictions at unsampled locations. Unlike plug-in kriging, it propagates uncertainty about variogram parameters through

2 sources1993
spatial analysis

Bayesian Spatial Autocorrelation

Bayesian Spatial Autocorrelation embeds spatial dependence directly into a Bayesian hierarchical model. A Conditional Autoregressive (CAR) prior encodes the expectation that neighboring areas are more similar than distant ones, and posterior inference is obtained via MCMC. This approach is especially valuable in diseas

2 sources1991
spatial analysis

Bayesian Spatial Durbin Model

The Bayesian Spatial Durbin Model (BSDM) estimates a spatial regression that simultaneously includes a spatially lagged outcome variable and spatially lagged covariates, using Bayesian inference with Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampling. It captures both endogenous and exogenous spatial spillovers while providing full pos

2 sources2009
spatial analysis

Bayesian Spatial Error Model

The Bayesian Spatial Error Model (Bayesian SEM) estimates a regression in which spatially correlated disturbances are explicitly modelled through a spatial weights matrix, while all parameters — regression coefficients, spatial error autocorrelation, and error variance — receive full posterior distributions via Bayesia

2 sources1988
spatial analysis

Bayesian Spatial Lag Model

The Bayesian Spatial Lag Model (BSLM) extends the classical spatial autoregressive (SAR) regression by placing prior distributions over all parameters and recovering full posterior distributions via MCMC sampling. It explicitly accounts for spatial dependence — the outcome in one location is partly driven by outcomes i

2 sources1997
spatial analysis

Bayesian Spatial Panel Model

The Bayesian Spatial Panel Model estimates spatial interaction effects (spatial lag, spatial error, or Durbin) in panel data using Bayesian inference via Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC). It combines the ability to control for unobserved unit- and time-specific heterogeneity with principled uncertainty quantification, m

2 sources2009
spatial analysis

Bayesian Spatial Regression

Bayesian Spatial Regression embeds a spatially structured random effect into a regression framework and estimates all parameters — including spatial range and variance — through posterior inference rather than point estimation. It handles spatial autocorrelation, quantifies full predictive uncertainty, and accommodates

2 sources1990
spatial analysis

Bayesian Universal Kriging

Bayesian Universal Kriging (BUK) extends classical universal kriging by placing prior distributions on trend coefficients and spatial covariance parameters, then propagating full posterior uncertainty into predictions. It interpolates spatially referenced continuous data while simultaneously estimating large-scale dete

2 sources1990
spatial analysis

CA-Markov

CA-Markov is a hybrid spatio-temporal model that projects land-use and land-cover change by combining a Markov chain — which predicts how much of each class will change — with cellular automata, which decide where that change happens. Widely used for urban-growth and land-cover forecasting, it answers both the quantity

2 sources1997
spatial analysis

Co-kriging

Co-kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique that predicts the spatial distribution of a primary variable by leveraging its spatial cross-correlation with one or more secondary (co-) variables. It extends ordinary kriging to multivariate settings, yielding more accurate predictions when the secondary variable

2 sources1965
spatial analysis

Cokriging

Cokriging extends kriging to use one or more correlated secondary variables to improve prediction of a primary variable. When the variable of interest is sparsely sampled but a related, cheaper-to-measure variable is densely sampled, cokriging borrows strength from the secondary variable through their cross-correlation

2 sources1963
spatial analysis

Conditional Geostatistical Simulation

Conditional Geostatistical Simulation — most commonly implemented as Sequential Gaussian Simulation (SGS) — generates multiple stochastic realizations of a spatial random field that are each consistent with observed sample data and with a fitted variogram model. Unlike kriging, which produces a single smoothed estimate

1 source1997
spatial analysis

Geary's C

Geary's C is a global measure of spatial autocorrelation — whether nearby locations tend to have similar values — introduced by Roy Geary in 1954. Unlike Moran's I, which is built on the covariation of values around the mean, Geary's C is built on the squared differences between neighbouring values, making it more sens

2 sources1954
spatial analysis

Geary's C

Geary's C is a global spatial autocorrelation statistic that measures whether nearby areal units share similar attribute values. Unlike Moran's I, it focuses on squared differences between adjacent pairs rather than cross-products of deviations from the mean, making it more sensitive to local dissimilarity and less inf

2 sources1954
spatial analysis

Geographically Weighted PCA

Geographically Weighted Principal Component Analysis (GWPCA) is a local dimensionality-reduction method introduced by Harris, Brunsdon, and Charlton in 2011. It extends classical PCA by fitting a separate weighted PCA at every location in a dataset, allowing eigenstructures — the principal components and their loadings

1 source2011
spatial analysis

Geographically Weighted Random Forest

Geographically Weighted Random Forest (GWRF) is a spatially local ensemble learning method that fits an independent Random Forest model at each observation location, weighting nearby training samples more heavily than distant ones through a spatial kernel function. It was introduced by Stefanos Georganos and colleagues

1 source2021
spatial analysis

Geographically Weighted Regression

Geographically Weighted Regression is a local regression method, introduced by Fotheringham, Brunsdon and Charlton (2002), that allows the regression coefficients to vary across space. Instead of one global equation, it fits a separate set of coefficients at every location, capturing spatial heterogeneity in the relati

1 source2002
spatial analysis

Getis-Ord Gi*

Getis-Ord Gi* is a local spatial statistic, introduced by Getis and Ord in 1992 and refined in 1995, that compares the value at each location and its neighbours against the global mean to identify statistically significant clusters of high values (hot spots) and low values (cold spots).

2 sources1992
spatial analysis

GIS-MCDA

GIS-MCDA combines the map layers of a geographic information system with multi-criteria decision analysis to produce suitability or priority maps — ranking locations by how well they satisfy several weighted criteria at once. It is the standard framework for spatial decisions such as siting hospitals, solar farms, land

2 sources2006
spatial analysis

Global Co-Kriging

Global Co-Kriging is a multivariate geostatistical interpolation method that estimates an unsampled primary variable by exploiting its spatial cross-correlation with one or more secondary variables. Unlike local (moving-window) approaches, it fits a single set of variogram and cross-variogram models to the entire study

2 sources1982
spatial analysis

Global Getis-Ord Gi*

The Global Getis-Ord Gi* statistic measures the overall degree of spatial clustering of high or low values across an entire study region. It answers whether the study area, taken as a whole, exhibits significant concentration of high values (hot clustering) or low values (cold clustering), returning a single summary Z-

2 sources1992
spatial analysis

Global Hot Spot Analysis

Global Hot Spot Analysis uses the Getis-Ord G statistic to determine whether high or low attribute values are spatially concentrated across an entire study area. It answers one question: is there overall clustering of high values (a hot spot tendency) or low values (a cold spot tendency) in the dataset as a whole, prod

2 sources1992
spatial analysis

Global Kriging

Global Kriging is the ordinary kriging interpolation procedure applied using all available sample points as the neighborhood — no spatial search window limits which data contribute to each prediction. It produces optimal linear unbiased predictions of an unobserved value at any target location, with associated predicti

2 sources1960
spatial analysis

Global Moran's I

Global Moran's I is the most widely used single-number summary of spatial autocorrelation across an entire study area. It compares the attribute value at each location with values at neighbouring locations using a spatial weights matrix, and returns a statistic ranging from −1 (perfect dispersion) through 0 (spatial ra

2 sources1950
spatial analysis

Global Ordinary Kriging

Global Ordinary Kriging (GOK) is the canonical geostatistical interpolation method that estimates values at unsampled locations as a weighted linear combination of nearby observations. It fits a single variogram model to the entire dataset, enforcing a global stationarity assumption, and produces optimal unbiased predi

2 sources1951
spatial analysis

Global Remote Sensing Classification

Global Remote Sensing Classification assigns every pixel across an entire image or worldwide dataset to a discrete land-cover or thematic class. Treating the scene uniformly — rather than adapting to local subregions — this wall-to-wall approach underpins continental and global land-cover products such as GlobCover, FR

2 sources1970
spatial analysis

Global Spatial Autocorrelation

Global Spatial Autocorrelation measures the degree to which similar values cluster together across an entire study area. Rather than identifying where clusters occur, it yields a single summary statistic — most commonly Moran's I — that quantifies whether spatial proximity coincides with value similarity, dissimilarity

2 sources1950
spatial analysis

Global Spatial Durbin Model

The Global Spatial Durbin Model extends the spatial lag model by including not only a spatially lagged dependent variable but also spatially lagged independent variables (WX). A single set of global coefficients applies uniformly across all locations, making it suitable for estimating average spillover effects when spa

2 sources2009
spatial analysis

Global Spatial Error Model

The Global Spatial Error Model (SEM) is a spatial regression technique that accounts for spatially autocorrelated error terms using a single, globally constant spatial parameter. It separates genuine predictor effects from spatial nuisance dependence in the residuals, yielding unbiased and efficient coefficient estimat

2 sources1988
spatial analysis

Global Spatial Panel Model

The Global Spatial Panel Model extends panel data regression by incorporating a global spatial weights matrix that links every location to every other location simultaneously. It jointly accounts for cross-sectional spatial dependence, time-series dynamics, and individual fixed or random effects, making it the standard

2 sources2003
spatial analysis

Global Universal Kriging

Global Universal Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation method that models a spatially varying trend (drift) as a deterministic function of coordinates and uses the entire dataset to fit both the trend coefficients and the residual variogram simultaneously. It produces optimal linear unbiased predictions together wi

2 sources1969
spatial analysis

Hot Spot Analysis

Hot Spot Analysis uses the Getis-Ord Gi* local spatial statistic to identify geographic locations where high or low attribute values cluster together to a degree that is statistically significant. Each feature is evaluated in relation to its neighbours, producing a z-score that flags genuine spatial hot spots and cold

2 sources1992
spatial analysis

Huff Model

Proposed by David Huff in 1964, the Huff Model is a probabilistic spatial interaction model that estimates the likelihood that consumers located in a given geographic zone will choose to shop at a particular retail outlet. It extends deterministic gravity models by assigning each consumer zone a probability of patronag

1 source1964
spatial analysis

Inverse Distance Weighting

Inverse distance weighting is a simple, deterministic method for estimating values at unsampled locations by taking a weighted average of nearby measured points, where closer points carry more weight. Introduced by Donald Shepard in 1968, it embodies the first law of geography — near things are more related than distan

2 sources1968
spatial analysis

Kriging

Kriging is a geostatistical method that predicts the value of a continuous variable at unmeasured locations from nearby measurements, using the spatial correlation structure captured by a variogram. Formalised by Georges Matheron in 1963, it is the best linear unbiased predictor (BLUP) for spatial data and comes in Ord

2 sources1963
spatial analysis

Landscape Metrics

Landscape metrics are quantitative indices that describe the composition and spatial configuration of a categorical map — typically land cover — at the patch, class, and whole-landscape levels. Developed in landscape ecology (O'Neill and colleagues, 1988) and made widely usable by the FRAGSTATS software, they turn maps

2 sources1988
spatial analysis

Least-Cost Path

Least-cost path analysis finds the route between two locations that minimizes accumulated travel cost across a landscape, rather than minimizing straight-line distance. By encoding terrain, slope, land cover, and other frictions into a cost surface and accumulating cost outward from a source, it identifies optimal corr

2 sources1994
ecology

Life Table Response Experiment

Life Table Response Experiments (LTRE) decompose observed temporal changes in population growth rate (lambda) into contributions from changes in specific vital rates (survival, reproduction). Developed by Caswell (2000) and applied extensively by Wisdom and colleagues, LTRE reveals which demographic changes drove obser

3 sources2000
spatial analysis

LISA

LISA, introduced by Luc Anselin in 1995, is a local statistic that computes spatial autocorrelation separately for every observation rather than for the map as a whole. It pinpoints where high or low values cluster and where spatial outliers sit, decomposing the global Moran's I into a contribution from each location.

1 source1995
spatial analysis

Local Geary's C

Local Geary's C is a local indicator of spatial association (LISA) that measures, for each location, how dissimilar its value is from its immediate neighbours. Unlike Local Moran's I, which detects clustering of similar values, Local Geary's C focuses on squared value differences and is especially sensitive to local sp

2 sources1995
spatial analysis

Local Geographically Weighted Regression

Local Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) estimates a separate regression model at each location in the study area, allowing every coefficient to vary spatially. By weighting nearby observations more heavily than distant ones, GWR reveals how predictor-outcome relationships shift across geographic space rather tha

2 sources1996
spatial analysis

Local Getis-Ord Gi*

The Local Getis-Ord Gi* statistic identifies statistically significant spatial clusters of high values (hot spots) and low values (cold spots) within a study area. Unlike global measures, it produces a z-score for every location, revealing where concentrated clustering occurs and with what statistical confidence.

2 sources1992
spatial analysis

Local Hot Spot Analysis

Local Hot Spot Analysis uses the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic to identify specific geographic locations where high or low values cluster together more than expected by chance. Unlike global measures that return a single summary for the whole study area, this local statistic produces a z-score for each feature, pinpointing e

2 sources1992
spatial analysis

Local Indicators of Spatial Association

LISA, introduced by Luc Anselin in 1995, decomposes a global spatial autocorrelation index into a location-specific statistic for every observation. It identifies where statistically significant spatial clusters and outliers occur on a map, enabling researchers to move beyond a single global summary and pinpoint the ge

2 sources1995
spatial analysis

Local Kernel Density Estimation

Local Kernel Density Estimation (Local KDE) is a non-parametric spatial method that estimates the density of point events at each location by applying a kernel function with a spatially adaptive bandwidth. Unlike global KDE, which uses a fixed bandwidth across the entire study area, Local KDE adjusts the smoothing wind

2 sources1985
spatial analysis

Local Kriging

Local Kriging is a spatially adaptive geostatistical interpolation method that restricts each prediction to a moving neighborhood of nearby observations, fitting a variogram model locally within that window. This allows spatial covariance structure to vary across the study region rather than imposing a single global va

2 sources1990
spatial analysis

Local Moran's I

Local Moran's I, introduced by Luc Anselin in 1995, is a Local Indicator of Spatial Association (LISA) that decomposes global spatial autocorrelation into location-specific contributions. For every observation it produces a signed statistic and a significance value, enabling researchers to identify spatial clusters (hi

2 sources1995
spatial analysis

Local Network-Based Spatial Analysis

Local Network-Based Spatial Analysis computes spatial statistics and network measures — such as accessibility, centrality, and density — within restricted local neighborhoods of a spatial network, revealing how connectivity and flow vary across fine geographic scales rather than globally across the entire network.

2 sources1990
spatial analysis

Local Ordinary Kriging

Local Ordinary Kriging (LOK) is a geostatistical interpolation method that estimates values at unsampled locations using only a spatially defined moving neighborhood of nearby observations. By restricting each prediction to a local data window rather than the full dataset, LOK accommodates spatial non-stationarity, red

2 sources1970
spatial analysis

Local Spatial Autocorrelation

Local Spatial Autocorrelation methods decompose global spatial clustering into location-specific statistics, revealing where in a study area significant clustering or dispersion occurs. Each observation receives its own association score and significance value, enabling the detection of spatial hot spots, cold spots, a

2 sources1995
spatial analysis

Local Spatial Durbin Model

The Local Spatial Durbin Model (Local SDM) extends the global Spatial Durbin Model by allowing regression coefficients to vary across geographic space. It combines the SDM's ability to capture both spatial lag of the dependent variable and spatial lags of covariates with a geographically weighted estimation framework,

2 sources2002