Writing Apprehension Test
Writing Apprehension Test (WAT) · Also known as: WAT
The Writing Apprehension Test measures the degree of anxiety and negative affect experienced in writing situations. Developed by Daly and Miller in 1975, the WAT identifies students with writing anxiety—a prevalent barrier to academic success, particularly in college coursework where writing is extensive. Writing apprehension leads to avoidance of writing tasks, procrastination, and reduced writing quality independent of actual writing ability. Early identification and targeted support can significantly improve both writing confidence and academic outcomes.
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When to use it
The Writing Apprehension Test is appropriate for any student population, particularly those in writing-intensive programs (humanities, social sciences, business), those reporting difficulty with writing assignments, or those struggling academically where writing is a barrier. It is valuable for identifying at-risk cohorts (first-year college students, ESL students, students with learning disabilities affecting writing), evaluating the effectiveness of writing support programs (writing centers, writing workshops, confidence-building interventions), longitudinally tracking changes in writing anxiety following intervention, and research examining writing anxiety correlates (self-efficacy, perfectionism, past writing experiences, cultural factors affecting writing attitudes).
Strengths & limitations
- Unidimensional, focused construct: measures writing-specific anxiety, distinct from general anxiety or writing skill, enabling clear interpretation
- Decades of validation: extensive research supports reliability, validity, and predictive utility for writing avoidance and quality
- Brief and practical: 26 items requiring 10–15 minutes, enabling easy screening of large cohorts
- Sensitive to intervention: writing confidence-building programs, writing workshops, and exposure-based interventions typically reduce WAT scores measurably
- Self-report bias: students may downplay anxiety due to embarrassment or belief that high apprehension implies low ability (conflating anxiety with incapacity)
- Limited insight into anxiety sources: WAT measures overall apprehension but not why a student is anxious (fear of evaluation, perfectionism, previous negative experience). Interviews or open-ended responses provide needed context
- Cultural variation: attitudes toward writing and disclosure of anxiety vary across cultures; scores may reflect cultural norms as much as individual apprehension
- Temporal instability: writing anxiety can fluctuate with task type (free writing vs. formal essay), stakes (low-stakes reflection vs. graded essay), and emotional state; single measurement is a snapshot
Frequently asked
Is writing anxiety the same as writer's block?
Related but distinct. Writing anxiety is a stable tendency to feel anxious in writing situations. Writer's block is a temporary inability to produce writing, often triggered by anxiety but sometimes by other factors (unclear ideas, perfectionism, environmental distraction). High WAT scores increase risk of writer's block, but not all blocked writers are highly anxious.
Can writing anxiety be reduced?
Yes. Effective interventions include: (1) Exposure: writing frequently in low-stakes contexts to normalize writing and reduce threat; (2) Cognitive restructuring: challenging perfectionist or catastrophic thoughts ('My essay will be terrible'); (3) Skill-building: learning outlining, drafting, and revision to increase confidence; (4) Social support: peer feedback and instructor encouragement. Most students show measurable improvements in 4–8 weeks with consistent practice.
Do perfectionistic students have higher writing apprehension?
Often yes. Perfectionistic standards ('My first draft must be excellent') create fear of evaluation and avoidance of writing until the student feels 'ready,' which leads to procrastination and rushed work. Helping perfectionistic writers embrace 'good enough' drafting and revision cycles (rather than seeking perfection upfront) reduces anxiety and improves process.
How does ESL status affect writing apprehension?
ESL writers often report higher writing anxiety due to multiple factors: language proficiency concerns, accent anxiety (written equivalent), awareness of grammatical errors, and fewer writing experiences in L2. However, with appropriate support (ESL-informed instruction, emphasis on ideas over mechanics at draft stage, positive feedback), many ESL writers develop confidence. WAT scores should be interpreted contextually for ESL populations.
Sources
- Daly, J. A., & Miller, M. D. (1975). The empirical development of an instrument to measure writing apprehension. Research in the Teaching of English, 9(3), 242–249. link ↗
- Choi, H. J. (2011). Writing apprehension, attitude toward writing and self-efficacy in basic college writers. Journal of Korea Academy Industrial Cooperation Society, 12(5), 2023–2031. link ↗
How to cite this page
ScholarGate. (2026, June 3). Writing Apprehension Test (WAT). ScholarGate. https://scholargate.app/en/educational-psychology/writing-apprehension-scale
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