Dead Reckoning
Dead Reckoning Navigation · Also known as: ded reckoning, inertial navigation, odometry
Dead Reckoning is a fundamental navigation method that estimates position and heading by integrating velocity and angular rate measurements from inertial sensors over time, without external references such as GPS. The term derives from maritime tradition ('deduced reckoning') and remains a cornerstone of aerospace and autonomous vehicle navigation. Dead reckoning works reliably in GPS-denied environments and is the baseline navigation method when external navigation aids are unavailable.
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When to use it
Dead reckoning is mandatory in GPS-denied environments: underwater vehicles, indoor navigation, jamming scenarios, and spacecraft. It is also used as a prior or baseline in integrated navigation systems (INS/GPS, INS/GNSS) where it bridges gaps in external measurements. Use dead reckoning when high-rate state estimation is needed (millisecond-level updates) and when the operating time window is short enough that error growth is tolerable (seconds to minutes for consumer-grade IMUs).
Strengths & limitations
- Self-contained; no external references or infrastructure required; works in GPS-denied and GPS-jamming environments.
- High-rate output; inertial sensors provide measurements at 100+ Hz, enabling precise control loop feedback.
- Initialization-free; begins producing estimates immediately upon startup (dead reckoning is the only option before external reference acquisition).
- Continuous availability; unaffected by signal blockage, weather, or deliberate denial.
- Error growth without bound; position and heading estimates drift over time due to sensor biases and noise (error ~ t^2 for biased accelerometers).
- Requires accurate initial conditions; uncertainty in starting position and attitude propagates through all subsequent estimates.
- Sensitive to sensor quality; low-cost MEMS IMUs have large biases and noise, leading to rapid drift (position error of km in minutes).
- No correction mechanism; pure dead reckoning has no feedback to detect and mitigate cumulative errors.
Frequently asked
Why does dead reckoning error grow over time?
Sensor errors (bias, noise, scale factor errors) are integrated into position and heading estimates. A constant bias in accelerometer (e.g., 1 milli-G) becomes a velocity ramp, which becomes a position quadratic (error ~ t^2/2). Over hours, this effect dominates. Gyroscope bias similarly causes heading to drift linearly in time.
What is the Schuler period and why is it important for INS?
The Schuler period (approximately 84 minutes) is the natural oscillation period of an INS in a gravity field. If not properly tuned, the INS can exhibit bounded oscillations in position and velocity error, particularly after external corrections are received. Understanding the Schuler dynamics is critical for stable integration of inertial and external measurements.
How do I implement dead reckoning on a microcontroller?
Use a simple Euler integration: read accelerometer and gyroscope; convert from body to navigation frame using quaternion or Euler angles; integrate acceleration to velocity and position; update attitude using gyro data. For better accuracy, use a higher-order integrator (Runge-Kutta) or a dedicated INS library (e.g., from a navigation system provider).
Can I use only accelerometer or only gyroscope for dead reckoning?
Accelerometer alone cannot reliably measure horizontal displacement (it measures total specific force, including gravity, which dominates in static conditions). Gyroscope alone cannot measure position. Both are needed for full 6-DOF dead reckoning. In some cases, gyro-only attitude estimation is sufficient if position is secondary.
Sources
- Savage, P. G. (2007). Strapdown Inertial Integration Technology (2nd ed.). Strapdown Associates. link ↗
- Titterton, D. H., & Weston, J. L. (2004). Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology (2nd ed.). Institution of Engineering and Technology. DOI: 10.1049/PBRA017E ↗
- Groves, P. D. (2008). Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and Multisensor Integrated Navigation Systems. Artech House. link ↗
How to cite this page
ScholarGate. (2026, June 3). Dead Reckoning Navigation. ScholarGate. https://scholargate.app/en/aerospace/dead-reckoning
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