Linganisha mbinu

	Utafiti Imara wa Kuelezea	Utafiti wa Kimaiga-Linganishaji
Nyanja	Muundo wa Utafiti	Muundo wa Utafiti
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Mwaka wa asili	1960s–1980s (robust statistics foundations); applied to explanatory research from 1990s onward	1964
Mwanzilishi	Peter J. Huber (robust statistics); applied to explanatory designs via Rand Wilcox and others	Fred N. Kerlinger
Aina	Quantitative research design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
Chanzo asilia	Huber, P. J. (1981). Robust Statistics. Wiley. ISBN: 978-0471418054	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Majina mbadala	robust causal research, outlier-resistant explanatory design, robust regression-based explanatory study	ex post facto research, causal-comparative design, retrospective causal study, CCR
Zinazohusiana	4	3
Muhtasari	Robust explanatory research combines the explanatory goal of identifying why and how variables causally influence one another with robust statistical methods that remain valid when data violate classical assumptions — particularly normality, homoscedasticity, and the absence of influential outliers. Rather than discarding outliers or forcing data to conform to ordinary least squares assumptions, this design applies estimators and inferential procedures that down-weight or resist the distorting influence of extreme observations while preserving the explanatory aim of the study.	Causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design in which the researcher compares two or more groups that already differ on an independent variable — one that was not manipulated — to investigate possible causes or consequences of that difference. Because group membership is pre-existing rather than randomly assigned, the design can suggest causal relationships but cannot establish them with the certainty of a true experiment. It is widely used in education, psychology, and social sciences when experimental manipulation is impractical or unethical.