Linganisha mbinu
Pitia mbinu ulizochagua bega kwa bega; safu zinazotofautiana zinaangaziwa.
| Utafiti wa Kimaabara wa Kimaabara wa Kimaabara× | Utafiti wa Kesi-udhibiti× | |
|---|---|---|
| Nyanja | Epidemiolojia | Epidemiolojia |
| Familia | Process / pipeline | Process / pipeline |
| Mwaka wa asili≠ | Mid-20th century onwards; pragmatic framing prominent from 1967 | 1950s (formal methodology); precursors in the 1920s |
| Mwanzilishi≠ | Classical epidemiology tradition; pragmatic framing refined by Schwartz & Lellouch (1967) and subsequent real-world evidence literature | Janet Lane-Claypon (early precursors, 1926); formalized by Brian MacMahon and Jerome Cornfield in the 1950s–1960s |
| Aina≠ | Observational epidemiological design | Observational analytic study design |
| Chanzo asilia≠ | Rothman, K. J., Greenland, S., & Lash, T. L. (2008). Modern Epidemiology (3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN: 978-0781755641 | Schlesselman, J.J. (1982). Case-Control Studies: Design, Conduct, Analysis. Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0195027860 |
| Majina mbadala | pragmatic cross-sectional survey, real-world cross-sectional study, observational cross-sectional study, prevalence survey | case-referent study, case-control design, retrospective case-control, case-control analysis |
| Zinazohusiana≠ | 4 | 6 |
| Muhtasari≠ | A pragmatic cross-sectional epidemiological study measures the prevalence of exposures, outcomes, and risk factors in a defined population at a single point in time, conducted under real-world conditions rather than tightly controlled experimental settings. It provides a snapshot of the health status of a community or patient group, making it one of the most widely used designs for surveillance, needs assessment, and hypothesis generation in clinical and public-health epidemiology. | A case-control study is a retrospective observational design in which individuals who have developed a disease or outcome of interest (cases) are compared with individuals who have not (controls) to determine whether prior exposure to a putative risk factor differs between the two groups. The primary measure of association is the odds ratio, which approximates the relative risk when the outcome is rare. Case-control studies are especially efficient for investigating rare diseases and generating etiological hypotheses. |
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