Linganisha mbinu

	Utafiti Mrefu wa Kulinganisha Kisababishi	Muundo wa Ex Post Facto
Nyanja	Muundo wa Utafiti	Muundo wa Utafiti
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Mwaka wa asili	1970s–1980s (as an established combined design in educational and social research)	1960s (systematic codification); concept used in social science from early 20th century
Mwanzilishi	Synthesized from causal-comparative tradition (Kerlinger, 1973) and longitudinal design frameworks (Goldstein, 1979)	Formalized by Fred N. Kerlinger; foundational treatment by Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley
Aina	Non-experimental quantitative research design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
Chanzo asilia	Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2009). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN: 978-0073525532	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Majina mbadala	longitudinal ex post facto design, longitudinal causal-comparative design, repeated-measures causal-comparative research, prospective causal-comparative study	after-the-fact research, retrospective non-experimental design, causal-comparative design, EPF design
Zinazohusiana	4	3
Muhtasari	Longitudinal causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design that compares pre-existing groups on one or more dependent variables across multiple measurement points over time. Unlike true experiments, the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable; instead, naturally occurring group differences (e.g., gender, socioeconomic status, diagnostic category) are examined to explore their relationship to outcomes as they evolve longitudinally.	Ex post facto design is a non-experimental quantitative research approach in which the researcher investigates a phenomenon after it has already occurred, examining pre-existing differences between groups to explore potential causal or associative relationships. Because the independent variable cannot be manipulated — it happened in the past — the design relies on careful group selection, retrospective data collection, and statistical controls to approximate causal inference without experimental intervention.