Linganisha mbinu

	Utafiti wa Upimaji wa Dhana	Utafiti wa Kimaiga-Linganishaji
Nyanja	Muundo wa Utafiti	Muundo wa Utafiti
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Mwaka wa asili	Early 20th century (Fisher 1925; Neyman–Pearson 1933)	1964
Mwanzilishi	Karl Pearson, Ronald A. Fisher, Jerzy Neyman, Egon Pearson	Fred N. Kerlinger
Aina	Quantitative confirmatory research design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
Chanzo asilia	Kerlinger, F. N., & Lee, H. B. (1986). Foundations of Behavioral Research (3rd ed.). Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN: 978-0030417603	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Majina mbadala	hypothetico-deductive research, confirmatory quantitative research, null hypothesis significance testing, NHST design	ex post facto research, causal-comparative design, retrospective causal study, CCR
Zinazohusiana	4	3
Muhtasari	Hypothesis testing research is a quantitative design in which the investigator derives one or more explicit, falsifiable propositions from theory, translates them into a null hypothesis (H0) and an alternative hypothesis (H1), collects empirical data, and then applies an inferential statistical test to decide whether the evidence is sufficient to reject H0. The approach is the dominant paradigm for confirmatory science across the social, behavioral, health, and natural sciences.	Causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design in which the researcher compares two or more groups that already differ on an independent variable — one that was not manipulated — to investigate possible causes or consequences of that difference. Because group membership is pre-existing rather than randomly assigned, the design can suggest causal relationships but cannot establish them with the certainty of a true experiment. It is widely used in education, psychology, and social sciences when experimental manipulation is impractical or unethical.