Linganisha mbinu

	Uchambuzi wa Uhusiano wa Dozi-Majibu	Utafiti wa Ikolojia
Nyanja	Epidemiolojia	Epidemiolojia
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Mwaka wa asili	Conceptual roots 16th century; modern epidemiological application mid-20th century	19th century (Snow 1854); formalised mid-20th century
Mwanzilishi	Paracelsus (conceptual foundation); formalized by John Snow and later Bradford Hill	Various; foundational work by John Snow (1854) and systematised in modern form by Brian MacMahon and colleagues
Aina	Quantitative analytical method	Observational epidemiological study
Chanzo asilia	Rothman, K. J., Greenland, S., & Lash, T. L. (2008). Modern Epidemiology (3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN: 978-0781755641	Morgenstern, H. (1995). Ecologic studies in epidemiology: concepts, principles, and methods. Annual Review of Public Health, 16(1), 61–81.
Majina mbadala	exposure-response analysis, concentration-response modeling, dose-response modeling, DRA	aggregate study, correlational study, ecological correlation study, population-level study
Zinazohusiana	4	5
Muhtasari	Dose-response analysis quantifies the relationship between the magnitude of an exposure (the dose) and the probability or rate of an outcome (the response). It is a core analytical strategy in epidemiology and toxicology, providing evidence that increasing exposure systematically increases — or decreases — the risk of disease. A demonstrated dose-response gradient is one of Bradford Hill's classic criteria supporting causal inference.	An ecological study is an observational epidemiological design in which the unit of analysis is a group or population — a country, region, city, or time period — rather than an individual. Exposures and outcomes are measured as aggregates (rates, proportions, or means) and then correlated across groups to generate or evaluate hypotheses about population-level associations between risk factors and disease.