Linganisha mbinu

	Muundo wa Ex Post Facto wa Kawaida	Utafiti wa Kimaiga-Linganishaji
Nyanja	Muundo wa Utafiti	Muundo wa Utafiti
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Mwaka wa asili	1964–1973	1964
Mwanzilishi	Fred N. Kerlinger (formalized ex post facto methodology)	Fred N. Kerlinger
Aina	Non-experimental quantitative research design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
Chanzo asilia	Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of Behavioral Research (2nd ed.). Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN: 978-0030862731	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Majina mbadala	cross-sectional causal-comparative design, retrospective cross-sectional design, after-the-fact cross-sectional study, cross-sectional EPF design	ex post facto research, causal-comparative design, retrospective causal study, CCR
Zinazohusiana	4	3
Muhtasari	A cross-sectional ex post facto design investigates presumed causal relationships by comparing groups that already differ on a key characteristic — all measured at a single point in time. Because the independent variable (e.g., smoking history, prior educational attainment) has already occurred and cannot be manipulated, the researcher works backward from observed outcomes to infer probable antecedents. It is widely used in education, public health, and the social sciences when experimental control is ethically or practically impossible.	Causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design in which the researcher compares two or more groups that already differ on an independent variable — one that was not manipulated — to investigate possible causes or consequences of that difference. Because group membership is pre-existing rather than randomly assigned, the design can suggest causal relationships but cannot establish them with the certainty of a true experiment. It is widely used in education, psychology, and social sciences when experimental manipulation is impractical or unethical.