Linganisha mbinu

	Congruence Analysis	Most Similar Systems Design	Process Tracing
Nyanja	Political Science	Political Science	Saikometriki
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline	Latent structure
Mwaka wa asili	2012	1970	2005
Mwanzilishi	Alexander L. George & Andrew Bennett; Joachim Blatter & Markus Haverland	John Stuart Mill (method of difference); Przeworski & Teune (systems framing)	Alexander George, Andrew Bennett
Aina	Small-N, theory-centered case-study method	Small-N comparative case-selection design	Qualitative causal inference
Chanzo asilia	Blatter, J., & Haverland, M. (2012). Designing Case Studies: Explanatory Approaches in Small-N Research. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN: 9780230249707	Przeworski, A., & Teune, H. (1970). The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry. New York: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN: 9780471701422	Bennett, A., & Checkel, J. T. (Eds.). (2015). Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytic Tool. Cambridge University Press.
Majina mbadala	Congruence method, Congruence procedure, Theory-centered case study, Predicted-observed congruence testing	MSSD, Most similar cases design, Mill's method of difference, Comparable cases strategy	—
Zinazohusiana	3	3	5
Muhtasari	Congruence analysis is a small-N, theory-centered case-study method that adjudicates between competing theories by comparing each theory's concrete predictions with the empirical observations in one or a few cases. The researcher derives specific, observable expectations from each rival theory and then assesses which theory's predictions are most congruent with what is actually observed. Described as the congruence method by George and Bennett and developed into a full explanatory approach by Blatter and Haverland, it makes theories — rather than cases or variables — the central objects of inference.	The most similar systems design (MSSD) is a small-N comparative strategy that selects cases as alike as possible on many background characteristics but differing on the outcome of interest. By matching cases so that most potential confounders are held roughly constant, the design isolates the few factors that vary alongside the outcome as the candidate causes. Rooted in John Stuart Mill's method of difference and named by Przeworski and Teune, it is a cornerstone of comparative politics for drawing causal inferences from a handful of countries or cases.	Process Tracing is a qualitative research method developed by George and Bennett (2005) for studying causal mechanisms and causal chains within individual cases. It involves examining the sequence of events and decision-making processes within a case to infer whether a hypothesized causal mechanism actually operated. Process tracing aims to strengthen causal inference in case studies by looking beyond correlation to understand how causes produce effects.