Linganisha mbinu

	Utafiti Linganishi wa Uchunguzi	Utafiti wa Kimaiga-Linganishaji
Nyanja	Muundo wa Utafiti	Muundo wa Utafiti
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Mwaka wa asili	Mid-20th century onward	1964
Mwanzilishi	Rooted in survey methodology traditions (Gallup, Likert, Lazarsfeld mid-20th century); comparative extension codified in social science research methods literature	Fred N. Kerlinger
Aina	Quantitative non-experimental research design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
Chanzo asilia	Fowler, F. J. (2014). Survey Research Methods (5th ed.). Sage Publications. ISBN: 978-1452259000	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Majina mbadala	comparative survey design, cross-group survey, multi-group survey research, comparative questionnaire study	ex post facto research, causal-comparative design, retrospective causal study, CCR
Zinazohusiana	4	3
Muhtasari	Comparative survey research is a quantitative non-experimental design that systematically collects structured survey data from two or more clearly defined groups, populations, or contexts in order to identify, describe, and analyze similarities and differences among them. It extends basic survey research by making comparison the explicit organizing logic: rather than characterizing a single population, the goal is to detect how attitudes, behaviors, or outcomes vary across groups defined by nationality, culture, profession, demographic category, or time period.	Causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design in which the researcher compares two or more groups that already differ on an independent variable — one that was not manipulated — to investigate possible causes or consequences of that difference. Because group membership is pre-existing rather than randomly assigned, the design can suggest causal relationships but cannot establish them with the certainty of a true experiment. It is widely used in education, psychology, and social sciences when experimental manipulation is impractical or unethical.