Linganisha mbinu

	Utafiti wa Maelezo unaolinganishwa	Utafiti wa Kimaiga-Linganishaji
Nyanja	Muundo wa Utafiti	Muundo wa Utafiti
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Mwaka wa asili	Mid-20th century, formalized in research methods texts from the 1960s onward	1964
Mwanzilishi	Codified in educational and behavioral research methods literature; no single originator	Fred N. Kerlinger
Aina	Non-experimental quantitative research design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
Chanzo asilia	Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN: 978-0078097874	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Majina mbadala	comparative survey design, descriptive comparative study, group-comparison descriptive research, CDR	ex post facto research, causal-comparative design, retrospective causal study, CCR
Zinazohusiana	3	3
Muhtasari	Comparative descriptive research is a non-experimental quantitative design that systematically documents characteristics, attitudes, behaviors, or conditions across two or more naturally occurring groups, then places those descriptions side by side to identify similarities and differences. Unlike causal-comparative designs, it makes no claim about why groups differ — it rigorously answers the question 'How do these groups compare on this characteristic?' without manipulating any variable.	Causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design in which the researcher compares two or more groups that already differ on an independent variable — one that was not manipulated — to investigate possible causes or consequences of that difference. Because group membership is pre-existing rather than randomly assigned, the design can suggest causal relationships but cannot establish them with the certainty of a true experiment. It is widely used in education, psychology, and social sciences when experimental manipulation is impractical or unethical.