Linganisha mbinu

	Mfululizo wa Kesi	Muundo wa Utafiti wa Usahihi wa Utambuzi
Nyanja	Epidemiolojia	Utafiti wa Kliniki
Familia	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
Mwaka wa asili	Longstanding; systematized in 20th century clinical research	2003-2015
Mwanzilishi	Historical clinical practice; formalized in modern evidence-based medicine literature	Bossuyt, Reitsma, and STARD group (2003); clinical epidemiology pioneers
Aina	Observational descriptive study	Research Design
Chanzo asilia	Case series. Wikipedia.	Bossuyt, P. M., Reitsma, J. B., Bruns, D. E., Gatsonis, C. A., Glasziou, P. P., Irwig, L. M., ... & de Vet, H. C. (2003). Towards complete and accurate reporting of studies of diagnostic accuracy: the STARD initiative. Annals of Internal Medicine, 138(1), 40–44.
Majina mbadala	case series report, clinical case series, consecutive case series, patient series	diagnostic accuracy study, test accuracy, STARD, diagnostic evaluation
Zinazohusiana	5	2
Muhtasari	A case series is a descriptive observational study that documents the characteristics, clinical course, and outcomes of a group of patients who share a common condition, exposure, or intervention. Unlike case reports, which focus on a single patient, a case series aggregates data across multiple patients (typically three or more) to identify patterns, generate hypotheses, and characterize rare or novel conditions — without a concurrent control group.	A diagnostic accuracy study evaluates how well a new diagnostic test (or biomarker, imaging modality, clinical assessment) detects the presence or absence of disease compared to a reference standard (gold standard). Standardized since 2003 by the STARD (Standards for Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies) initiative, diagnostic accuracy studies are fundamental to clinical medicine, determining whether and how new tests can improve patient diagnosis and treatment.