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	Modelowanie hierarchiczne liniowe (HLM / modelowanie wielopoziomowe)	Modelowanie równań strukturalnych (SEM)
Dziedzina	Statystyka	Statystyka
Rodzina	Hypothesis test	Latent structure
Rok powstania	1986	1970
Twórca	Raudenbush & Bryk (popularized); Goldstein (parallel development)	Karl Jöreskog (LISREL framework, 1970s)
Typ	Parametric nested-data regression	Latent variable / causal modeling
Źródło pierwotne	Raudenbush, S.W. & Bryk, A.S. (2002). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods (2nd ed.). Sage. ISBN: 978-0761919049	Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J. & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate Data Analysis (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN: 978-1473756540
Inne nazwy	HLM, MLM, multilevel modeling, multilevel analysis	Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi (SEM), structural equation modelling, covariance structure analysis, latent variable modeling
Pokrewne	4	5
Podsumowanie	Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM), also known as Multilevel Modeling (MLM), is a parametric statistical method for analyzing nested or clustered data — for example students within classrooms, patients within hospitals, or employees within organizations. Formalized by Raudenbush and Bryk in their 2002 seminal text (building on work from the mid-1980s), HLM simultaneously estimates individual-level and group-level effects while correctly partitioning variance across levels.	Structural equation modeling is a multivariate statistical framework that simultaneously estimates a measurement model — relating observed indicators to latent constructs — and a structural model specifying directional or reciprocal relationships among those constructs. Rooted in the LISREL tradition developed by Karl Jöreskog in the 1970s, SEM is the standard tool for testing complex theoretical models in the social, behavioural, and management sciences.