Differential Item Functioning in Educational Testing
Differential item functioning (DIF) analysis is the central statistical tool for evaluating the fairness of test items in education. An item shows DIF when examinees of equal ability but different group membership — for example by gender, race/ethnicity, or language background — have unequal probabilities of answering it correctly. By conditioning on ability before comparing groups, DIF analysis separates genuine item bias from real group differences in proficiency, and flags items for expert review before they affect high-stakes decisions.
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- Holland, P. W., & Wainer, H. (Eds.). (1993). Differential Item Functioning. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. · ISBN 9780805809725
- Dorans, N. J., & Holland, P. W. (1993). DIF detection and description: Mantel-Haenszel and standardization. In P. W. Holland & H. Wainer (Eds.), Differential Item Functioning (pp. 35–66). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. · ISBN 9780805809725
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