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	प्रति-वास्तविक प्रभाव मूल्यांकन (Counterfactual Impact Evaluation - CIE)	कारण अनुमान के लिए वाद्य चर (IV) विधि
क्षेत्र	कारणात्मक अनुमान	स्वास्थ्य अर्थशास्त्र
परिवार	Regression model	Process / pipeline
उद्भव वर्ष	1970s–2000s	1990s (modern applications)
प्रवर्तक	Heckman, Imbens, Rubin, and the program evaluation literature	Angrist & Pischke (applied econometrics); rooted in econometric theory
प्रकार	Causal inference / program evaluation	Method
मौलिक स्रोत	Heckman, J. J., & Vytlacil, E. J. (2007). Econometric evaluation of social programs, Part I: Causal models, structural models and econometric policy evaluation. Handbook of Econometrics, 6B, 4779-4874.	Angrist, J. D., & Pischke, J. S. (2009). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
उपनाम	CIE, counterfactual evaluation, counterfactual policy evaluation, impact evaluation	IV, two-stage least squares, TSLS, causal estimation
संबंधित	5	3
सारांश	Counterfactual Impact Evaluation is a family of causal methods that estimates the effect of an intervention by comparing what actually happened to participants with what would have happened had the intervention not taken place. Formalised in the Rubin Causal Model and extended by Heckman, Imbens and others, CIE underlies most modern program and policy evaluation practice.	Instrumental variables (IV) is an econometric method to estimate causal effects when treatment or exposure is not randomly assigned and confounding is severe or unmeasured. IV relies on a third variable (instrument) that influences treatment but does not directly affect the outcome, allowing researchers to isolate the causal effect from the noise of confounding. Developed extensively in econometrics (Angrist & Pischke, 1990s–2000s), IV methods are increasingly used in health economics and health services research to leverage natural experiments and policy changes.