مقایسهٔ روش‌ها

	پژوهش علی-مقایسه‌ای مقطعی	طراحی مقایسه‌ای-علی (پس‌نگر)
حوزه	طراحی پژوهش	طراحی پژوهش
خانواده	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
سال پیدایش	1960s onward	1964
پدیدآور	Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley (quasi-experimental foundations); refined in education research by various methodologists	Fred N. Kerlinger
نوع	Non-experimental quantitative design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
منبع بنیادین	Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2015). Research Methods in the Social Sciences (8th ed.). Worth Publishers. ISBN: 978-1429295154	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
نام‌های دیگر	cross-sectional ex post facto design, single-wave causal-comparative study, cross-sectional group-comparison design, cross-sectional criterion-group study	ex post facto research, causal-comparative design, retrospective causal study, CCR
مرتبط	3	3
خلاصه	Cross-sectional causal-comparative research compares two or more pre-existing groups — defined by a characteristic or experience that has already occurred — on one or more outcome variables, with all data collected at a single point in time. Because the presumed cause (group membership) precedes measurement but cannot be manipulated, the design sits between purely descriptive and truly experimental work. It is widely used in education, psychology, and social sciences when randomization is impossible or unethical.	Causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design in which the researcher compares two or more groups that already differ on an independent variable — one that was not manipulated — to investigate possible causes or consequences of that difference. Because group membership is pre-existing rather than randomly assigned, the design can suggest causal relationships but cannot establish them with the certainty of a true experiment. It is widely used in education, psychology, and social sciences when experimental manipulation is impractical or unethical.