مقایسهٔ روش‌ها

	ارزیابی پیامدهای پادواقعی (CIE)	روش متغیرهای ابزاری (IV) برای استنتاج علی
حوزه	استنتاج علّی	اقتصاد سلامت
خانواده	Regression model	Process / pipeline
سال پیدایش	1970s–2000s	1990s (modern applications)
پدیدآور	Heckman, Imbens, Rubin, and the program evaluation literature	Angrist & Pischke (applied econometrics); rooted in econometric theory
نوع	Causal inference / program evaluation	Method
منبع بنیادین	Heckman, J. J., & Vytlacil, E. J. (2007). Econometric evaluation of social programs, Part I: Causal models, structural models and econometric policy evaluation. Handbook of Econometrics, 6B, 4779-4874.	Angrist, J. D., & Pischke, J. S. (2009). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
نام‌های دیگر	CIE, counterfactual evaluation, counterfactual policy evaluation, impact evaluation	IV, two-stage least squares, TSLS, causal estimation
مرتبط	5	3
خلاصه	Counterfactual Impact Evaluation is a family of causal methods that estimates the effect of an intervention by comparing what actually happened to participants with what would have happened had the intervention not taken place. Formalised in the Rubin Causal Model and extended by Heckman, Imbens and others, CIE underlies most modern program and policy evaluation practice.	Instrumental variables (IV) is an econometric method to estimate causal effects when treatment or exposure is not randomly assigned and confounding is severe or unmeasured. IV relies on a third variable (instrument) that influences treatment but does not directly affect the outcome, allowing researchers to isolate the causal effect from the noise of confounding. Developed extensively in econometrics (Angrist & Pischke, 1990s–2000s), IV methods are increasingly used in health economics and health services research to leverage natural experiments and policy changes.