قارن الطرق

	نموذج راش متعدد المستويات	Differential Item Functioning
المجال	القياس النفسي	القياس النفسي
العائلة	Latent structure	Latent structure
سنة النشأة	1997	1970s–1993
صاحب الطريقة	Adams, Wilson & Wu	William H. Angoff and colleagues (ETS); systematized by Holland & Wainer
النوع	Hierarchical item response model	Item-level bias detection
المصدر التأسيسي	Adams, R. J., Wilson, M. & Wu, M. (1997). Multilevel item response models: An approach to errors in variables regression. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 22(1), 47–76.	Holland, P. W. & Wainer, H. (Eds.) (1993). Differential Item Functioning. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN: 978-0805809589
الأسماء البديلة	hierarchical Rasch model, random-effects Rasch model, multilevel IRT Rasch, MRCML model	DIF, item bias analysis, measurement non-equivalence, item-level measurement bias
ذات صلة	5	5
الملخص	The multilevel Rasch model extends the standard Rasch model to data with a nested structure — for example, students within classrooms within schools — by embedding person ability parameters inside a hierarchical linear model. It yields item difficulty estimates on a logit scale while simultaneously partitioning person-ability variance across cluster levels and correcting standard errors for non-independence.	Differential item functioning identifies test or survey items that behave differently for examinees from different groups — such as gender, ethnicity, or language background — after controlling for the underlying ability or trait being measured. DIF analysis is essential for fairness evaluation in educational testing and psychological scale development.