Animal Research Ethics — 3Rs Principle
The 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) is the ethical framework governing humane animal research, established by Russell and Burch (1959) and now adopted globally by research institutions, funding agencies, and regulatory bodies. The 3Rs require researchers to: replace animal research with non-animal methods where possible, reduce the number of animals used through rigorous design, and refine experimental procedures to minimize animal suffering. Implementation of the 3Rs is now mandatory in most jurisdictions through Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs), EU Directive 2010/63/EU, and NIH policy.
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- Russell, W.M.S. & Burch, R.L. (1959). The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. Methuen. · URL
- European Union. (2010). Directive 2010/63/EU on the Protection of Animals Used for Scientific Purposes. Official Journal of the European Union, L 276/33. · URL
- National Institutes of Health. (2015). Policy on the Use of Animals in NIH-Funded Research. NIH Office of Laboratory Animal Care. · URL
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