विधियों की तुलना करें

	पदानुक्रमित कारण-तुलनात्मक अनुसंधान	Ex Post Facto Design
क्षेत्र	अनुसंधान अभिकल्प	अनुसंधान अभिकल्प
परिवार	Process / pipeline	Process / pipeline
उद्भव वर्ष	1960s (causal-comparative); 1980s–2002 (hierarchical/multilevel extension)	1960s (systematic codification); concept used in social science from early 20th century
प्रवर्तक	Kerlinger (causal-comparative logic); Raudenbush & Bryk (hierarchical extension)	Formalized by Fred N. Kerlinger; foundational treatment by Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley
प्रकार	Non-experimental quantitative research design	Non-experimental quantitative research design
मौलिक स्रोत	Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods (2nd ed.). Sage. ISBN: 978-0761919049	Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
उपनाम	multilevel causal-comparative design, nested causal-comparative research, HLM causal-comparative study, hierarchical ex post facto comparison	after-the-fact research, retrospective non-experimental design, causal-comparative design, EPF design
संबंधित	4	3
सारांश	Hierarchical causal-comparative research is a non-experimental quantitative design that compares pre-existing groups on an outcome variable while explicitly modeling the nested structure of the data. Participants are clustered within higher-level units — students within classrooms, employees within organizations — and the design uses multilevel analytical techniques to distinguish group differences at each level. The cause-and-effect inference is strengthened by accounting for variance attributable to the hierarchy rather than misattributing it to individual-level group membership.	Ex post facto design is a non-experimental quantitative research approach in which the researcher investigates a phenomenon after it has already occurred, examining pre-existing differences between groups to explore potential causal or associative relationships. Because the independent variable cannot be manipulated — it happened in the past — the design relies on careful group selection, retrospective data collection, and statistical controls to approximate causal inference without experimental intervention.