विधियों की तुलना करें

	शिक्षा अनुसंधान में प्रति-तथ्यात्मक प्रभाव मूल्यांकन	कारण अनुमान के लिए वाद्य चर (IV) विधि
क्षेत्र	कारणात्मक अनुमान	स्वास्थ्य अर्थशास्त्र
परिवार	Regression model	Process / pipeline
उद्भव वर्ष	2000s–2010s	1990s (modern applications)
प्रवर्तक	Blundell & Costa Dias; formalized for EU education policy by the European Commission Joint Research Centre	Angrist & Pischke (applied econometrics); rooted in econometric theory
प्रकार	Quasi-experimental causal inference framework	Method
मौलिक स्रोत	Blundell, R., & Costa Dias, M. (2002). Alternative approaches to evaluation in empirical microeconomics. Portuguese Economic Journal, 1(2), 91-115.	Angrist, J. D., & Pischke, J. S. (2009). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
उपनाम	CIE in education, counterfactual program evaluation, causal impact evaluation, education policy impact evaluation	IV, two-stage least squares, TSLS, causal estimation
संबंधित	5	3
सारांश	Counterfactual impact evaluation (CIE) is the systematic application of causal inference designs — such as difference-in-differences, regression discontinuity, matching, and instrumental variables — to measure the genuine effect of education programs, policies, or interventions by constructing a credible counterfactual: what would have happened to participants had they not been treated.	Instrumental variables (IV) is an econometric method to estimate causal effects when treatment or exposure is not randomly assigned and confounding is severe or unmeasured. IV relies on a third variable (instrument) that influences treatment but does not directly affect the outcome, allowing researchers to isolate the causal effect from the noise of confounding. Developed extensively in econometrics (Angrist & Pischke, 1990s–2000s), IV methods are increasingly used in health economics and health services research to leverage natural experiments and policy changes.