Reporting Results

Presenting findings clearly, without interpretation

Reporting results is the process of conveying what a study found in an objective, factual manner. The results section uses text, tables, and figures without duplicating information and without interpretation, which belongs in the discussion. Statistics must be reported completely — including effect sizes and confidence intervals alongside test statistics and p-values — so that readers can judge the magnitude and precision of findings, not just their statistical significance.

Definition of the Concept

Reporting results refers to the objective and systematic presentation of findings obtained after processing the data collected during a study. The results section is where the researcher conveys observations and measurements without attempting to assign meaning to them. Interpretation, explanation, and recommendations are excluded here and reserved for the discussion and conclusion sections. This separation enhances the transparency of the research and allows readers to evaluate the findings independently.

Complete Statistical Reporting

Reporting only a p-value for statistical findings is insufficient. International publication standards require that the test statistic (e.g., t, F, χ²), degrees of freedom, p-value, effect size (such as Cohen's d, η², or r), and confidence interval all be reported together. Effect size communicates the practical importance of a difference, while the confidence interval conveys the precision of the estimate. Without this information, a small difference that appears significant in a large sample may be misleadingly presented as an important finding.

Using Text, Tables, and Figures Together

In the results section, text, tables, and figures complement one another, but the same information is not repeated across multiple formats. Tables are ideal for presenting many numerical values in an organized way. Figures are effective for visually displaying patterns, changes, or relationships. Text highlights the most important findings and guides the reader to a table or figure without duplicating its content. This balance supports reading flow and prevents unnecessary repetition.

Common Pitfalls and Good Practice

Common errors include allowing interpretation to creep into the results section, reporting p-values alone, repeating identical information in both tables and text, and selective reporting — presenting only statistically significant findings. Good practice requires honestly conveying findings for all hypotheses, whether significant or not; presenting results sequentially and consistently with the research questions; and using terminology that conforms to disciplinary standards such as APA or AMA style.

Key terms

Effect Size: A standardized measure indicating the practical or clinical importance of a statistical difference.
Confidence Interval: A range of values that contains the true parameter value with a specified probability.
Selective Reporting: Publishing only significant or favorable findings; a major source of research bias.
p-value: The probability of obtaining the observed result, or more extreme, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Results Section: The manuscript section where research findings are presented objectively, without interpretation.