Compare methods

	Congruence Analysis	Process Tracing
Field	Political Science	Psychometrics
Family	Process / pipeline	Latent structure
Year of origin	2012	2005
Originator	Alexander L. George & Andrew Bennett; Joachim Blatter & Markus Haverland	Alexander George, Andrew Bennett
Type	Small-N, theory-centered case-study method	Qualitative causal inference
Seminal source	Blatter, J., & Haverland, M. (2012). Designing Case Studies: Explanatory Approaches in Small-N Research. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN: 9780230249707	Bennett, A., & Checkel, J. T. (Eds.). (2015). Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytic Tool. Cambridge University Press.
Aliases	Congruence method, Congruence procedure, Theory-centered case study, Predicted-observed congruence testing	—
Related	3	5
Summary	Congruence analysis is a small-N, theory-centered case-study method that adjudicates between competing theories by comparing each theory's concrete predictions with the empirical observations in one or a few cases. The researcher derives specific, observable expectations from each rival theory and then assesses which theory's predictions are most congruent with what is actually observed. Described as the congruence method by George and Bennett and developed into a full explanatory approach by Blatter and Haverland, it makes theories — rather than cases or variables — the central objects of inference.	Process Tracing is a qualitative research method developed by George and Bennett (2005) for studying causal mechanisms and causal chains within individual cases. It involves examining the sequence of events and decision-making processes within a case to infer whether a hypothesized causal mechanism actually operated. Process tracing aims to strengthen causal inference in case studies by looking beyond correlation to understand how causes produce effects.