Ancient Skepticism

Ancient skepticism was a practical philosophy as much as a theory of knowledge: by setting appearances and arguments against one another, the sceptic aimed to suspend judgement on every contested question and so attain tranquillity of mind.

Definition

Ancient skepticism is the family of Greek and Roman philosophical practices that, by opposing equally weighty appearances and arguments, sought to bring about suspension of judgement (epoché) on all matters beyond appearance, with tranquillity (ataraxia) as its aim.

Scope

This topic covers the two ancient sceptical movements — Pyrrhonism, systematised by Sextus Empiricus, and the skepticism of the later Academy associated with Arcesilaus and Carneades. It examines the modes or tropes that generate suspension of judgement, the goals of epoché and ataraxia, the distinction between appearances one may follow and beliefs one withholds, and the debate over whether the sceptic can live their skepticism. Modern Cartesian skepticism is treated in a separate topic.

Core questions

• How do the sceptical modes produce suspension of judgement?
• What is the relation between suspension of judgement and tranquillity?
• Can the sceptic act and live without holding beliefs?
• How does Pyrrhonian skepticism differ from the negative dogmatism of the Academy?

Key concepts

• Epoché (suspension of judgement)
• Ataraxia (tranquillity) as the sceptic's goal
• The modes or tropes of Aenesidemus and Agrippa
• Following appearances without assenting to beliefs
• Pyrrhonism versus Academic skepticism

History

Skepticism in antiquity traces to Pyrrho of Elis in the fourth century BCE and was developed within the Academy by Arcesilaus and Carneades against Stoic claims to certainty. Sextus Empiricus, writing around 200 CE, preserved and systematised the Pyrrhonian tropes; the rediscovery and Latin translation of his works in the sixteenth century reignited skeptical debate and helped shape early modern philosophy.

Debates

Whether the sceptic can live without belief

Critics from antiquity onward press the apraxia objection that a person who suspends all judgement could not act or survive; Pyrrhonists reply that they follow appearances and customs without assenting to how things really are, a reading still debated by interpreters.

Key figures

• Pyrrho of Elis
• Sextus Empiricus
• Arcesilaus
• Carneades

Seminal works

• sextus-outlines
• annasbarnes1985

Frequently asked questions

What is epoché?

Epoché is the suspension of judgement: the sceptic's withholding of assent from claims about how things really are, brought about by recognising that opposing appearances and arguments seem equally strong. For the Pyrrhonist it is meant to lead to tranquillity.

How does Pyrrhonism differ from Academic skepticism?

Pyrrhonists suspend judgement even on whether knowledge is possible, claiming only how things appear, whereas the Academic sceptics were often read as positively asserting that nothing can be known, a position the Pyrrhonists regarded as itself a form of dogmatism.